Mughal Empire and British Rule in India — TNPSC Group 1 History Notes

Mughal Empire (1526–1707, effective)

Founding — Battle of Panipat, 1526

Babur (1526–1530) defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat using gunpowder and artillery — weapons the Delhi Sultanate lacked. Founded Mughal dynasty.

Humayun (1530–1556): Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri (1540), regained it with Persian help (1555). Died 1556, six months after regaining throne.

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): Brief but remarkable interlude. Built the Grand Trunk Road (Kabul to Chittagong), introduced a standard silver coin (rupiya — ancestor of the rupee), reformed land revenue (basis for Akbar's later reforms).

Akbar the Great (1556–1605)

Akbar is considered the greatest Mughal emperor for expanding and consolidating the empire.

Key achievements:

• Defeated Hemu at Second Battle of Panipat (1556) under regent Bairam Khan
• Conquered Gujarat, Bengal, Rajputana, Deccan
• Mansabdari system: Ranked nobility by mansab (rank) — both military and civil positions. Prevented formation of hereditary nobility.
• Land revenue reform (Ain-i-Dahsala/Todar Mal Bandobast): 10-year average of produce used to set tax. Reduced arbitrariness and increased revenue.
• Religious policy: Sulh-e-Kul — abolished jizya, Din-i-Ilahi (1582), Ibadat Khana debates
• Architecture: Fatehpur Sikri (UNESCO World Heritage), Buland Darwaza

Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Known for justice (chain of justice) and patronage of art (especially miniature painting)
• Married Nur Jahan (powerful political influence)
• First permanent British factory at Surat (1612) under East India Company permission

Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

• Golden age of Mughal architecture
• Built Taj Mahal (Agra, 1631–1653 — in memory of wife Mumtaz Mahal; UNESCO World Heritage)
• Red Fort, Delhi; Jama Masjid; Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi)
• Peacock Throne; Kohinoor diamond in his treasury

Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• Largest territorial expansion of Mughal Empire; but overextended
• Reimposed jizya (1679); destroyed some Hindu temples
• Long Deccan campaigns (1681–1707) — drained treasury and manpower
• Death in 1707 triggered rapid Mughal decline
• Tamil Nadu: Under Aurangzeb's Deccan expansion, Nawabs of Arcot (Carnatic) were appointed to govern Tamil Nadu

Advent of Europeans

Portuguese (First)

• Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut (Kozhikode), Kerala in 1498 — first direct sea route from Europe to India
• First factory: Calicut (1500); first fort: Cochin (1503)
• Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa (1510) — Portuguese capital in India
• Controlled spice trade until the Dutch and English arrived

Dutch (VOC)

• Dutch East India Company (VOC) established 1602
• Defeated Portuguese at Battle of Swally (1612)
• Had factories in Pulicat (Tamil Nadu), Nagapattinam, Chinsura (Bengal)
• Pulicat was the Dutch headquarters in India until 1825

British East India Company

• Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600
• First factory at Surat (1608); Fort St. George, Madras (1644) — first British fort in India
• Fort William, Calcutta (1700); Bombay (received from Portugal in 1661)
• Defeated French at Battle of Wandiwash (1760) — French eliminated from Indian politics
• Battle of Plassey (1757): Clive defeated Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah — began British political control of Bengal

French

• French East India Company (1664)
• Headquarters: Pondicherry (Tamil Nadu)
• Governors: Dupleix (brilliant but defeated)
• Defeated by British at Battle of Wandiwash (1760); ended French colonial ambitions

British Conquest of India

Anglo-Mysore Wars and Tamil Nadu

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore controlled large parts of Tamil Nadu.

• First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69): Hyder Ali vs. British — Madras Treaty signed
• Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84): Hyder Ali (died 1782) and Tipu Sultan vs. British — Treaty of Mangalore
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92): Cornwallis defeated Tipu; Treaty of Seringapatam — Tipu lost half his territory
• Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Wellesley defeated and killed Tipu at Seringapatam; Mysore given to Wodeyars; Coimbatore, Salem, Dindigul annexed to Madras Presidency

Conquest of Tamil Nadu (Madras Presidency)

• British occupied Madras (Fort St. George) from 1644
• Gradually expanded: Carnatic, Thanjavur, Tirunelveli
• Polygar Wars (Palaiyakkarar Revolt, 1799–1805): Local chieftains of South Tamil Nadu resisted British — Marudu Brothers, Kattabomman
• Kattabomman (Veerapandiya Kattabomman): Palaiyakarrar of Panchalamkurichi, Tirunelveli. Refused to pay tribute to British; captured and hanged 1799 at Kayathar.
• By 1801, most of Tamil Nadu absorbed into Madras Presidency

British Administrative Policies

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793):

• Permanent Settlement (1793): Fixed land revenue permanently with zamindars in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa. Zamindars became landlords; peasants lost ownership rights.

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805):

• Subsidiary Alliance: Indian rulers must accept British troops, pay for them, and accept a British Resident. Effectively surrendered independence. Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Peshwa (1802) accepted.

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856):

• Doctrine of Lapse: No adopted heirs recognised; territories annexed.
• Introduced Railways (first train 1853, Bombay to Thane), telegraph, postal reform
• Opened Presidency Colleges, Public Works Department

Revolt of 1857

Causes

Immediate cause: Greased cartridges — Enfield rifle cartridges rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat. Soldiers had to bite them, offending both Hindus and Muslims.

Other causes:

• Doctrine of Lapse displaced rulers (Jhansi, Awadh, Nagpur)
• General Service Enlistment Act — sepoys required to serve overseas (considered polluting by caste norms)
• Economic exploitation — de-industrialisation of Indian crafts
• Social reforms (Widow Remarriage Act, 1856) seen as attack on tradition

Key Leaders

Aftermath — End of Company Rule

Government of India Act, 1858:

• British East India Company dissolved
• Crown (Queen Victoria) took direct control
• Secretary of State for India appointed in London
• Governor-General became Viceroy (Lord Canning was first Viceroy)
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1858): promised non-interference in religion, equal rights for Indians in civil service

Board Exam Tips

• Three Battles of Panipat: 1526 (Babur), 1556 (Akbar/Bairam Khan), 1761 (Marathas vs. Abdali).
• Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan; Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar.
• Akbar's Sulh-e-Kul = universal tolerance policy; abolished jizya.
• Vasco da Gama: Calicut, 1498. First British factory: Surat. Fort St. George, Madras: 1644.
• Doctrine of Lapse = Dalhousie. Permanent Settlement = Cornwallis. Subsidiary Alliance = Wellesley.
• 1857 trigger: Enfield cartridges. End result: Government of India Act 1858, Company dissolved.
• Kattabomman: Tirunelveli; hanged 1799 — important Tamil Nadu freedom fighter TNPSC topic.