What were Lord Dalhousie's major policies and why is he controversial?

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856) — considered both the greatest and most controversial Governor General. Positive contributions: (1) Doctrine of Lapse — annexed Satara (1848), Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Baghat, Udaipur, Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856) — main cause of 1857 revolt; (2) Railways — first railway line (Bombay to Thane, 1853); (3) Electric telegraph introduced; (4) Postal reforms — uniform postage rate; (5) Public Works Department (PWD) created; (6) Wood's Education Despatch (1854) — basis of modern education system; (7) Widow Remarriage Act — passed under his successor but prepared under him; (8) Conquered Punjab (1849 — after Second Anglo-Sikh War), Lower Burma (1852); (9) Engineering College at Roorkee (first in Asia, 1847). Controversial: Doctrine of Lapse — seen as pretext for annexation; angered Indian rulers, contributed to 1857 Revolt.

Who were the Viceroys during the peak of Indian nationalism and what events occurred?

Key Viceroys during nationalist period: (1) Lord Curzon (1899–1905): Partition of Bengal (1905) — united Hindus and Muslims in protest; Universities Act 1904; Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904; Swadeshi movement triggered by partition. (2) Lord Minto II (1905–1910): Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) — introduced separate electorates for Muslims — communal wedge. (3) Lord Hardinge II (1910–1916): Partition of Bengal annulled (1911); Capital shifted Delhi (1911); Delhi Durbar (1911). (4) Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921): Lucknow Pact (1916); Rowlatt Act (1919); Jallianwala Bagh (1919); Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919). (5) Lord Reading (1921–1926): Non-Cooperation Movement; Chauri Chaura (1922); Gandhi arrested. (6) Lord Irwin (1926–1931): Civil Disobedience Movement; Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences.

What was the significance of Lord Mountbatten as the last Viceroy?

Lord Mountbatten (March–August 1947 as Viceroy; then first Governor-General of independent India until June 1948): (1) Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) — announced partition of India; creation of two dominions; (2) Indian Independence Act 1947 — passed by British Parliament July 18, 1947; (3) August 15, 1947 — India and Pakistan became independent; (4) Mountbatten remained as Governor-General of India (not Pakistan); (5) Sardar Patel under Mountbatten's guidance integrated 562 princely states into India; (6) Mountbatten's hasty partition created Radcliffe Line — blamed for partition violence (1 million deaths, 15 million displaced). C. Rajagopalachari succeeded Mountbatten as Governor-General — only Indian to hold the post (1948–1950).

Governor Generals & Viceroys of British India — TNPSC Group 1 Notes

Overview — British Administration in India

Key Terms

Term	Period	Meaning
Governor of Bengal	Pre-1772	Head of Bengal Presidency under EIC
Governor General of Bengal	1772–1833	Head of Bengal Presidency with supervisory powers over Bombay and Madras
Governor General of India	1833–1858	Head of all British territories in India (Charter Act 1833)
Viceroy of India	1858–1947	After 1857 Revolt; Crown rule; also called "Governor General" officially

Regulating Act 1773 — First Parliamentary control over EIC; created post of Governor General of Bengal.

Charter Act 1833 — Governor General of Bengal became Governor General of India (Lord William Bentinck = first to hold this title).

Government of India Act 1858 — After 1857 Revolt; EIC abolished; Crown took over; Governor General became Viceroy as well.

Governor Generals of Bengal (1772–1833)

Warren Hastings (1772–1785)

First Governor General of Bengal

Area	Key Act / Event
Administration	Abolished Clive's Dual System; took direct control of revenue
Law	Regulating Act 1773 — Supreme Court at Calcutta
Law	Pitt's India Act 1784 — Board of Control over EIC
Revenue	Introduced 5-year settlement; then annual settlement
Wars	Rohilla War (1774); First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)
Culture	Asiatic Society founded by William Jones (1784); first English translation of Bhagavad Gita
Controversy	Impeached on return to England; acquitted after 7 years

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

Area	Key Act / Event
Revenue	Permanent Settlement (1793) — fixed land revenue with zamindars in Bengal; zamindars = owners
Administration	Cornwallis Code — separated revenue, judicial, commercial functions
Judiciary	Created District Collectors as revenue officers; Circuit Courts
Civil Service	Europeanised ICS — Indians excluded from senior posts
War	Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92) — Tipu Sultan defeated; Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792)

Sir John Shore (1793–1798)

Policy of non-intervention (refused to intervene in Indian disputes)
Charter Act 1793 — renewed EIC charter

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)

Area	Key Act / Event
Policy	Subsidiary Alliance — Indian rulers give up army + foreign policy; pay for British subsidiary force; accept British Resident
Wars	Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) — Tipu Sultan died at Seringapatnam; Mysore annexed
Wars	Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)
Diplomacy	Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjore, Surat accepted Subsidiary Alliance
Education	Fort William College, Calcutta (1800) — train civil servants in Indian languages

Lord Hastings (1813–1823)

Area	Key Act / Event
Wars	Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16) — Treaty of Sugauli; Nepal lost Shimla, Kumaon, Garhwal
Wars	Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) — Peshwa surrendered; Maratha power ended
Policy	Abandoned non-intervention; asserted British paramountcy
Administration	Ryotwari System — Thomas Munro in Madras Presidency

Lord Amherst (1823–1828)

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26) — Treaty of Yandaboo; Arakan and Tenasserim gained
Barrackpore Mutiny (1824) — Indian soldiers refused to cross seas; suppressed

Governor Generals of India (1833–1858)

Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

First Governor General of India (Charter Act 1833 renamed the post)

Area	Key Act / Event
Social Reform	Abolition of Sati — Bengal Sati Regulation 1829 (influenced by Ram Mohan Roy)
Social Reform	Suppression of Thuggee — Colonel William Sleeman; abolished organised robbery-murder cult
Social Reform	Abolished female infanticide
Education	Macaulay's Minute (1835) — English as medium of instruction; Western education
Administration	Annexation of Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), Central Cachar
Revenue	Malabar peasant unrest; Ryotwari extended

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)

Most consequential Governor General — greatest and most controversial

Area	Key Act / Event
Doctrine of Lapse	States without natural heir annexed — Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856)
Railways	First railway — Bombay to Thane, April 16, 1853 (34 km)
Telegraph	First electric telegraph line — Calcutta to Agra (1853)
Postal	Uniform postage rate across India
Education	Wood's Education Despatch (1854) — departments of education; universities; vernacular schools; female education
PWD	Public Works Department created
Military	Conquered Punjab (1849 — after Second Sikh War; Maharaja Dalip Singh deposed; Koh-i-Noor diamond taken)
Military	Annexed Lower Burma (1852) — Second Anglo-Burmese War
Engineering	Roorkee Engineering College (1847) — first technical college in Asia
Legacy	Policies caused discontent → 1857 Revolt

Viceroys of India (1858–1947)

Lord Canning (1858–1862)

Last Governor General and First Viceroy

Area	Key Act / Event
1857 Revolt	Suppressed the revolt; policy of leniency earned him nickname "Clemency Canning"
Act	Government of India Act 1858 — abolished EIC; Crown rule; Secretary of State for India
Act	Indian Councils Act 1861 — legislative councils; Indians nominated
Universities	Universities of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras established (1857)
Revenue	Doctrine of Lapse abandoned

Lord Lawrence (1864–1869)

Policy of "Masterly Inactivity" — avoided interference in Afghanistan
Bhutan War (1864–65)

Lord Mayo (1869–1872)

First census of India (1872)
Assassinated at Port Blair (Andaman) — only Viceroy to be assassinated in office

Lord Lytton (1876–1880)

Area	Key Act / Event
Famine	Great Famine (1876–78) — 5.5 million deaths; Lytton's indifference criticised
Legislation	Vernacular Press Act 1878 — censorship of Indian-language newspapers
Legislation	Arms Act 1878 — Indians required licenses for arms; Europeans exempt
Imperial	Delhi Durbar (1877) — proclaimed Queen Victoria as Empress of India ("Kaiser-i-Hind")
War	Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80)

Lord Ripon (1880–1884)

Most popular British Viceroy among Indians

Area	Key Act / Event
Press	Repealed Vernacular Press Act
Local Self-Government	Resolution on Local Self-Government (1882) — elected local bodies; "Magna Carta of local self-government"
Education	Hunter Commission (1882) — reviewed education; promoted primary education
Judiciary	Ilbert Bill controversy (1883) — proposed allowing Indian judges to try Europeans; fierce European opposition; compromise bill passed
Factory	Factory Act 1881 — limited child labour

Lord Dufferin (1884–1888)

Indian National Congress founded (1885) — A.O. Hume; first session Bombay; W.C. Bonnerjee = first president
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) — Upper Burma annexed

Lord Curzon (1899–1905)

Most ambitious but most controversial Viceroy

Area	Key Act / Event
Partition	Partition of Bengal (1905) — divided Bengal into East Bengal (Muslim majority) + West Bengal; triggered Swadeshi Movement
Education	Universities Act 1904 — increased government control over universities
Archaeology	Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904 — protected historical monuments; set up Archaeological Survey
Police	Police Commission (Andrew Fraser) — reformed police
Frontier	Created North-West Frontier Province (1901); Tibet Expedition (Younghusband, 1903–04)
Curzon-Kitchener	Military administration dispute; Curzon resigned

Lord Minto II (1905–1910)

Area	Key Act / Event
Reforms	Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909) — enlarged legislative councils; introduced separate electorates for Muslims — major communal step
Terrorism	Partition of Bengal protests; deportation of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1908)

Lord Hardinge II (1910–1916)

Area	Key Act / Event
Partition Reversed	Partition of Bengal annulled (1911) — united Bengal; created Bihar and Orissa as separate province
Capital	Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911) — Delhi Durbar, King George V visited
Bomb	Delhi Durbar procession bomb thrown at Hardinge (1912) — survived
WWI	India's role in World War I began

Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921)

Area	Key Act / Event
Pact	Lucknow Pact (1916) — Congress and Muslim League united; demanded self-government
Repression	Rowlatt Act (1919) — detention without trial; triggered mass protests
Massacre	Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) — General Dyer; 379+ killed (official); Hunter Commission probe
Reforms	Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) — introduced Dyarchy in provinces; expanded councils

Lord Reading (1921–1926)

Area	Key Act / Event
NCM	Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) — Gandhi; hartals; boycott of courts, schools
Chauri Chaura	Gandhi called off NCM after Chauri Chaura violence (February 5, 1922)
Arrest	Gandhi arrested (1922); sentenced 6 years; released 1924
Malabar	Moplah Rebellion (1921) — Muslim peasant uprising in Malabar; brutal suppression

Lord Irwin (1926–1931)

Area	Key Act / Event
Commission	Simon Commission (1927) — all-British commission to review reforms; boycotted ("Simon Go Back")
Martyr	Lala Lajpat Rai died after police lathicharge during Simon Commission protest (1928); Bhagat Singh retaliated
CDM	Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) — Gandhi's Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930) — 241 miles; Salt Satyagraha
Pact	Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) — CDM suspended; political prisoners released; Gandhi to attend Round Table Conference
Execution	Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev executed (March 23, 1931)

Lord Willingdon (1931–1936)

Gandhi returned from Round Table Conference empty-handed; relaunched CDM (1932)
Poona Pact (1932) — Gandhi vs Ambedkar on separate electorates for depressed classes; compromised on reserved seats
Government of India Act 1935 — passed (under his tenure)

Lord Linlithgow (1936–1944)

Area	Key Act / Event
Elections	First elections under Government of India Act 1935 (1937) — Congress won 7 provinces
WWII	Congress ministries resigned (1939) when Linlithgow declared India at war without consulting
Declaration	August Offer (1940) — dominion status after war; rejected by Congress
Mission	Cripps Mission (1942) — dominion status offer; rejected by Congress and Muslim League
QIM	Quit India Movement (August 8–9, 1942) — "Do or Die"; mass arrests; Linlithgow described it as "most serious rebellion since 1857"
Famine	Bengal Famine (1943) — 2–3 million deaths; Linlithgow/Churchill's policies blamed

Lord Wavell (1944–1947)

Area	Key Act / Event
Conference	Simla Conference (1945) — failed; Jinnah's veto on Muslim League members
Elections	1945–46 elections — Congress won general seats; Muslim League won Muslim seats overwhelmingly
Mission	Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) — three-tier federation; rejected by Congress over groupings issue
Violence	Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946) — Great Calcutta Killings; communal violence across India
Interim	Interim Government formed (September 1946) — Nehru as PM; Jinnah's League joined later

Lord Mountbatten (March–August 1947)

Last Viceroy of India

Area	Key Act / Event
Plan	Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) — announced partition; two dominions — India and Pakistan
Act	Indian Independence Act 1947 — passed July 18, 1947; in force August 15, 1947
Independence	August 15, 1947 — India and Pakistan independent
Integration	562 princely states integrated by Sardar Patel (Operation Polo — Hyderabad, 1948)
Radcliffe Line	Sir Cyril Radcliffe drew India-Pakistan border in 5 weeks — resulted in massive violence
Post-Independence	Mountbatten became first Governor-General of independent India (until June 1948)

C. Rajagopalachari — succeeded Mountbatten as India's Governor-General (1948–50); only Indian to hold the post; last Governor-General before India became a Republic on January 26, 1950.

Key Acts — Chronological Summary

Year	Act / Policy	Viceroy / GG	Significance
1773	Regulating Act	Warren Hastings	First Parliamentary control of EIC
1784	Pitt's India Act	Warren Hastings	Board of Control established
1793	Permanent Settlement	Cornwallis	Zamindari system; fixed revenue
1829	Abolition of Sati	Bentinck	Social reform
1833	Charter Act	Bentinck	GG of Bengal → GG of India
1835	Macaulay's Minute	Bentinck	English medium education
1853	First Railway	Dalhousie	Bombay–Thane
1854	Wood's Despatch	Dalhousie	Modern education framework
1856	Widow Remarriage Act	Canning (passed under)	—
1858	GoI Act	Canning	EIC abolished; Crown rule; Viceroy
1878	Vernacular Press Act	Lytton	Censorship (repealed by Ripon)
1882	Local Self-Government	Ripon	Elected local bodies
1885	INC founded	Dufferin	Nationalist movement begins
1905	Partition of Bengal	Curzon	Swadeshi Movement triggered
1909	Morley-Minto Reforms	Minto II	Separate electorates — communal
1911	Partition reversed; Delhi capital	Hardinge II	Bengal reunited
1919	Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh	Chelmsford	Mass protests; massacre
1919	Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms	Chelmsford	Dyarchy introduced
1930	Salt Satyagraha	Irwin	Civil Disobedience Movement
1935	GoI Act	Willingdon	Provincial autonomy; elections
1942	Quit India Movement	Linlithgow	Final mass movement
1947	Indian Independence	Mountbatten	Independence and partition

Tamil Nadu Connections

Event	Connection
Cornwallis	Third Mysore War — Tipu's territory partly in present Tamil Nadu border area
Wellesley	Fourth Mysore War (1799) — Tipu Sultan killed at Seringapatnam; Mysore restored to Wadiyars; British supremacy in South India
Bentinck	Female infanticide abolished — prevalent in some Tamil communities (Killi practice)
Dalhousie	Annexed Tanjore (Thanjavur) and Trichinopoly (Trichy) — applied Doctrine of Lapse to Carnatic Nawab
Curzon	Partition of Bengal protests — INC leaders including Tamil leaders participated in Swadeshi
Chelmsford	Rowlatt protests in Madras; Tamil leaders active
Irwin	V.O. Chidambaram Pillai imprisoned during this period; Civil Disobedience in Tamil Nadu
Mountbatten	C. Rajagopalachari (Tamil, from Salem district) became last Governor-General; Mountbatten's successor

Board Exam Tips — Governor Generals & Viceroys

Warren Hastings = First GG of Bengal; Regulating Act 1773; Pitt's India Act 1784
Cornwallis = Permanent Settlement 1793; Third Mysore War; Europeanised civil service
Wellesley = Subsidiary Alliance; killed Tipu Sultan (1799)
Bentinck = First GG of India (Charter Act 1833); abolished Sati 1829; Macaulay's Minute 1835
Dalhousie = Doctrine of Lapse; First railway 1853 (Bombay-Thane); Wood's Despatch 1854; Punjab (1849)
Canning = Last GG + First Viceroy; suppressed 1857; GoI Act 1858
Lytton = Vernacular Press Act 1878; Arms Act 1878; Delhi Durbar 1877
Ripon = Most popular; Local Self-Government 1882; repealed VPA; Ilbert Bill
Dufferin = INC founded 1885
Curzon = Partition of Bengal 1905 → Swadeshi Movement; Universities Act 1904
Minto II = Morley-Minto Reforms 1909; separate electorates
Hardinge II = Partition of Bengal reversed 1911; Delhi new capital 1911
Chelmsford = Rowlatt Act 1919; Jallianwala Bagh April 13, 1919; Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
Irwin = Dandi March 1930; Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931
Linlithgow = Quit India Movement Aug 9, 1942; Bengal Famine 1943
Mountbatten = Last Viceroy; June 3 Plan; August 15, 1947; Rajagopalachari = last GG

Frequently Asked Questions

Warren Hastings (1772–1785) was the first Governor General of Bengal (NOT of India — that title came later). Key contributions: (1) Abolished the Dual System introduced by Clive — took direct control of revenue and civil justice; (2) Regulating Act 1773 — first Parliamentary regulation of East India Company; Supreme Court established at Calcutta; (3) Rohilla War (1774); (4) First Anglo-Maratha War; (5) Pitt's India Act 1784 (passed during his tenure); (6) Promoted Orientalism — Asiatic Society founded by William Jones (1784); translated Gita into English (Wilkins). Impeached on return to England but acquitted after 7-year trial.