Pre-Historic India
Stone Age
- Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age, 5 lakh–10,000 BCE): Stone tools (choppers, flakes); hunter-gatherers; cave paintings (Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh — UNESCO World Heritage Site)
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age, 10,000–6000 BCE): Microlithic tools; nomadic lifestyle
- Neolithic (New Stone Age, 6000–1000 BCE): Agriculture begins; pottery; domestication of animals; Mehrgarh (Balochistan) — earliest agricultural settlement in South Asia (7000 BCE)
- Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age, 1500–1000 BCE): Copper + stone tools; Jorwe, Malwa, Kayatha cultures in Deccan
Indus Valley Civilisation (2500–1750 BCE)
Overview
Also called Harappan Civilisation (after the first discovered site, Harappa in Punjab, Pakistan).
Discovery: Harappa excavated by Daya Ram Sahni (1921); Mohenjo-daro by R.D. Banerji (1922) under John Marshall, Director-General of ASI.
Extent: Covered 1.3 million sq km — largest of the three ancient civilisations (larger than Egypt and Mesopotamia combined). From Balochistan in the west to Meerut in the east; from Kashmir in the north to Gujarat in the south.
Timeline:
- Early phase: 3200–2600 BCE
- Mature phase (peak): 2600–1900 BCE
- Late/Decline phase: 1900–1300 BCE
Key Sites
| Site | Location | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan | First excavated; granaries; citadel |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh, Pakistan | Largest city; Great Bath; 'Priest-King' statue |
| Lothal | Gujarat, India | Dockyard/port; fire altars; beads |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan, India | Fire altars; pre-Harappan ploughed field |
| Dholavira | Gujarat, India | Water conservation system; sign-board |
| Banawali | Haryana, India | Good road planning |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana, India | Largest Harappan site in India (possibly larger than Mohenjo-daro) |
Key Features
- Urban planning: Grid streets, standardised burnt bricks (4:2:1 ratio), multi-storeyed houses
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): Large water tank — possibly for ritual purification; bitumen waterproofing
- Drainage system: Covered drains — world's first civic sanitation
- Granaries: Stored grain — indicate surplus production and administration
- Weights and measures: Standardised across the civilisation — suggest central authority
- Script: Pictographic, undeciphered — about 400 signs. Written right to left (boustrophedon in some examples)
- Trade: Internal trade in copper, tin, lapis lazuli; external trade with Mesopotamia (called Meluhha in Sumerian texts)
- No temples or palaces identified — suggests different governance from Mesopotamia/Egypt
- Animals: Unicorn (most depicted on seals), elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, bull
Vedic Age (1500–600 BCE)
Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)
Rigveda: Oldest of four Vedas; 1,028 hymns; composed by Aryans.
- Major gods: Indra (thunder, war — most hymns), Agni (fire), Varuna (water/cosmic order), Soma (ritual drink)
- Society: Tribal; Jana (tribe), Kula (family), Vis (clan)
- Women could compose hymns (Gargi, Lopamudra); widow remarriage allowed
- Cattle = primary wealth; no iron; horses used for chariot warfare
Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)
Other three Vedas: Samaveda (music/melodies), Yajurveda (sacrifice rituals), Atharvaveda (spells/charms)
Upanishads: Philosophical texts exploring nature of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (individual soul). Basis of Vedanta philosophy.
Rigidity increases:
- Varna system crystallised: Brahmin (priests) > Kshatriya (warriors) > Vaishya (merchants) > Shudra (servants)
- Iron Age: Iron ('Krishna Ayas') enabled forest clearing and agriculture in Gangetic plains
- Capital cities emerge: Hastinapur, Indraprastha (Mahabharata era)
- Women's status declined
Epic Period:
- Ramayana: Attributed to Valmiki — Rama's story; historical core: ~500 BCE
- Mahabharata: Attributed to Vyasa — Pandavas vs Kauravas; Bhagavad Gita within it; core: ~400 BCE
Mahajanapadas and Rise of New Religions (600–321 BCE)
16 Mahajanapadas: Large kingdoms in 6th century BCE: Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Vajji (Vaishali — republican), Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Anga, Malla.
Magadha became the most powerful: Haryanka dynasty → Shishunaga dynasty → Nanda dynasty → Maurya dynasty.
Buddhism (563–483 BCE)
Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha):
- Born: 563 BCE, Lumbini (Nepal). Died: 483 BCE, Kushinagar (UP).
- Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya (Bihar) under a Bodhi tree
- First sermon: Sarnath (UP) — 'Dhammachakka Pavattana' (Turning of the Wheel of Dharma)
- Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya): Life is suffering → Suffering has a cause (desire) → Desire can be overcome → Eightfold Path leads to Nirvana
- Eightfold Path: Right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration
- Three jewels (Triratna): Buddha, Dhamma (teaching), Sangha (community)
Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE):
- 24th Tirthankara (last)
- Five vows (Panchshila): Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truth (Satya), Non-stealing (Asteya), Celibacy (Brahmacharya), Non-possession (Aparigraha)
- Patron kings: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru (Magadha)
- Strong in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka to this day
Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE)
Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)
- Founded Maurya dynasty; overthrew Dhana Nanda of Nanda dynasty with Chanakya's help
- Defeated Seleucus Nicator (323 BCE) in 305 BCE — gained Afghanistan, Balochistan
- Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna, Bihar)
- Megasthenes (Greek ambassador from Seleucus) wrote Indica describing Mauryan administration
- Abdicated throne; became Jain monk; died at Sravanabelagola (Karnataka) by fasting
Bindusara (297–273 BCE)
- Son of Chandragupta; extended empire southward into Deccan
- Called 'Amitragata' (slayer of enemies) by Greeks
Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)
Greatest Mauryan emperor; one of the greatest rulers in world history.
Kalinga War (261 BCE): Ashoka invaded Kalinga (Odisha); 100,000 killed, 150,000 deported. Devastated Ashoka.
Conversion to Buddhism: After Kalinga, Ashoka embraced Buddhism under monk Upagupta.
Dhamma policies:
- Non-violence (Ahimsa) — banned animal sacrifice at court
- Tolerance of all religious sects
- Welfare state: hospitals, wells, roads, trees planted
- Officials (Dhamma Mahamattas) appointed to spread Dhamma
- Sent missionaries: Mahendra (son) and Sanghamitra (daughter) to Sri Lanka
Rock Edicts: Carved in Prakrit (Brahmi script) on rocks and pillars at Sanchi, Dhauli, Girnar, Sarnath, Topra, Meerut.
Ashoka's Pillars: National Emblem of India from the Sarnath Lion Capital (4 lions, Dharma Chakra). National motto 'Satyameva Jayate' from Mundaka Upanishad.
Decline: After Ashoka, empire fragmented. Last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha was killed by general Pushyamitra Shunga (185 BCE) — founded Shunga dynasty.
Post-Mauryan Period (185 BCE–320 CE)
- Shunga dynasty (185–75 BCE): Brahminical revival; Sanchi stupa expansion; persecuted Buddhists
- Satavahanas: Deccan — important for Tamil Nadu; trade with Romans
- Indo-Greek kings: Northwest India — introduced Hellenistic art; Menander (Milinda) embraced Buddhism
- Kushana Empire: Kanishka I (c. 78–101 CE) — Fourth Buddhist Council; promoted Buddhism in Central Asia; Mathura and Gandharan art
- Sangam age Tamil kingdoms (300 BCE–300 CE): Concurrent with this period
Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) — Golden Age
Rulers
| Emperor | Period | Achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta I | 320–335 CE | Founded Gupta Empire; married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi; Gupta Era begins 319/320 CE |
| Samudragupta | 335–375 CE | 'Napoleon of India'; military conquests; Allahabad Pillar inscription (Harishena's panegyric) |
| Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) | 375–415 CE | Peak of Gupta Empire; defeated Shakas of western India; Ujjain as 2nd capital; Chinese traveller Fa Hien visited |
| Kumaragupta I | 415–455 CE | Founded Nalanda University (Bihar — UNESCO) |
| Skandagupta | 455–467 CE | Repelled Huna (Hun) invasions; empire weakened after him |
Achievements of the Gupta Age
Science and Mathematics:
- Aryabhatta (476 CE): Calculated value of pi (π = 3.1416); described Earth's rotation on its axis; stated planets orbit the Sun; calculated solar year; invented zero (disputed but influential); Aryabhatiya (treatise)
- Varahamihira: Panchasiddhantika (astronomy), Brihat Samhita (natural phenomena)
- Brahmagupta: Brahmasphutasiddhanta — algebra, rules for using zero, negative numbers
Literature:
- Kalidasa: Greatest Sanskrit poet and playwright; Abhijnanasakuntalam (play), Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava
- Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa (play about Chandragupta Maurya)
- Amarasimha: Amarakosha (Sanskrit dictionary)
Art and Architecture:
- Ajanta cave paintings (Aurangabad, Maharashtra) — UNESCO World Heritage Site; Buddhist scenes
- Ellora rock-cut temples (later, Rashtrakuta period)
- Sarnath Buddha (characteristic Gupta style — transparent drapery)
- Dashavatara temple, Deogarh (Madhya Pradesh) — finest Gupta temple
End of Gupta Empire: Huna invasions (5th–6th century CE) weakened the empire. Later Gupta kings lost control; regional kingdoms (Harsha, Chalukyas, Pallavas) rose.
Board Exam Tips
- Harappan Civilisation: discovered 1921–22; undeciphered script; Great Bath = Mohenjo-daro; Lothal = port
- Rigveda: oldest Veda; 1,028 hymns; Indra = chief god
- Chandragupta Maurya: founded 321 BCE; Arthashastra by Chanakya; capital Pataliputra
- Ashoka: Kalinga War 261 BCE; converted to Buddhism; Dhamma policies; Rock edicts; National emblem from Sarnath
- Gupta Age (320–550 CE) = Golden Age. Aryabhatta, Kalidasa, Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
- Nalanda University founded by Kumaragupta I in Gupta period
- Buddha: born Lumbini (563 BCE); enlightened Bodh Gaya; first sermon Sarnath; died Kushinagar
- Mahavira: 24th Tirthankara; 5 vows; Jainism