Pre-Maurya Context
16 Mahajanapadas (6th–4th Century BCE)
Before the Maurya Empire, India had 16 powerful kingdoms (Mahajanapadas):
Important ones:
- Magadha (Bihar) — became most powerful; base of Maurya Empire
- Kosala (UP) — rival of Magadha; Buddha preached here
- Vajji (Bihar) — a republic (gana-sangha); Vaishali its capital
- Avanti (MP) — powerful; Ujjain capital
- Gandhara (Pakistan/Afghanistan) — Takshashila (Taxila) — centre of learning
Rise of Magadha: Four dynasties ruled Magadha sequentially: 1. Haryanka dynasty — Bimbisara, Ajatashatru 2. Shishunaga dynasty 3. Nanda dynasty — first empire-builders; overthrown by Chandragupta 4. Maurya dynasty — India's first pan-Indian empire
Alexander's Invasion (326 BCE)
- Alexander the Great crossed Indus (326 BCE); defeated Porus (Battle of Hydaspes/Jhelum)
- Porus fought bravely; Alexander impressed; restored Porus as vassal
- Alexander's army mutinied at Beas (Hyphasis) — refused to go further east
- Alexander retreated; died at Babylon (323 BCE)
- His invasion left behind Greek kingdoms (Bactria, Indo-Greek); created political vacuum in northwest — exploited by Chandragupta
Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE)
Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE)
Founder of Maurya Empire
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Capital | Pataliputra (modern Patna, Bihar) |
| Guru/Advisor | Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta) |
| Overthrew | Dhana Nanda (last Nanda king) |
| Greek Ambassador | Megasthenes sent by Seleucus Nicator |
| Greek Account | Indica — describes Mauryan administration, city of Pataliputra |
| End | Converted to Jainism; abdicated; died by Sallekhana (fasting) at Shravanabelagola |
Defeat of Seleucus (305 BCE):
- Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's general who controlled eastern territories) invaded India
- Chandragupta defeated him
- Treaty: Seleucus ceded territory (Afghanistan, Baluchistan); received 500 war elephants
- Matrimonial alliance — probably Greek princess married into Mauryan family
- Megasthenes sent as Greek ambassador
Mauryan Administration:
- Centralised bureaucracy — highly organised
- King = head; assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers)
- Amatyas (civil servants) managed various departments
- Empire divided into provinces headed by Kumaras (princes/viceroys)
- Provinces → districts → villages
- Espionage system — extensive spy network (Chanakya's Arthashastra)
- Army — 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants (per Megasthenes)
- Revenue — land revenue (1/4 to 1/6 of produce), trade taxes, forest produce
Chanakya / Kautilya / Vishnugupta
India's greatest statesman-philosopher. Three names, one person:
- Chanakya — personal name
- Kautilya — pen name (from "kutila" = crooked/subtle)
- Vishnugupta — family/gotra name
Arthashastra:
- Treatise on statecraft, economics, military strategy, diplomacy
- Rediscovered 1905 by R. Shamasastry (Mysore Oriental Library)
- Saptanga Theory — 7 elements of a state: Swami (king), Amatya (ministers), Janapada (territory), Durga (fort), Kosha (treasury), Danda (army), Mitra (ally)
- Mandala Theory — concentric circles of states; neighbour = enemy; neighbour's neighbour = friend
- Shadgunya — six foreign policies: Sandhi (peace), Vigraha (war), Asana (neutrality), Yana (march), Samshraya (alliance), Dvaidhibhava (dual policy)
Bindusara (298–272 BCE)
- Son of Chandragupta; called "Amitraghata" (slayer of enemies) by Greeks
- Extended empire to Deccan
- Father of Ashoka
- Invited Greek philosopher Strabo's teacher to court
Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE)
Greatest Mauryan ruler; one of history's greatest monarchs
Kalinga War (261 BCE) — The Turning Point
- Ashoka conquered Kalinga (modern Odisha) — bloody war
- 1,00,000 killed; 1,50,000 deported; many more died — deeply shocked Ashoka
- Converted to Buddhism (influenced by Bhikkhu Upagupta)
- Adopted policy of Dhamma (Dhamma Vijaya = conquest by righteousness) replacing Digvijaya (military conquest)
Ashoka's Dhamma — Key Principles
1. Ahimsa (non-violence) — to all living beings; gave up hunting and meat 2. Tolerance of all religious sects (sampradaya-bahu-mana) 3. Respect for parents, elders, teachers, Brahmins, sramanas 4. Generosity and charity 5. Truthfulness in speech and thought 6. Humane treatment of servants and slaves 7. Right conduct toward neighbours
Dhamma ≠ Buddhism. It was a universal ethical code for all subjects regardless of religion.
Ashoka's Edicts
| Type | Number | Location | Content |
|---|---|---|---|
| Major Rock Edicts | 14 | Carved on rock faces across empire | Dhamma principles, Kalinga war remorse, religious tolerance |
| Minor Rock Edicts | Several | Smaller rocks | Personal conversion; Dhamma |
| Pillar Edicts | 7 major | Stone pillars | Dhamma; administrative instructions |
| Cave Inscriptions | Several | Barabar Caves (Bihar) | Donations to Ajivika monks |
Important edict locations: Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra (Pakistan); Girnar (Gujarat); Dhauli, Jaugada (Odisha — Kalinga edicts); Sanchi, Sarnath, Allahabad, Delhi (pillars)
Brahmi script used for most edicts (south India edicts in Tamil-Brahmi); Kharosthi in northwest; Greek and Aramaic in Afghanistan.
Ashoka's Missionary Work
- Sent Mahendra (son) and Sanghamitra (daughter) to Sri Lanka — spread Buddhism
- Missions to: Syria (Antiochus II), Egypt (Ptolemy II), Macedonia (Antigonus), Greece (Alexander of Epirus), Cyrene (Magas)
- Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra (250 BCE) — under Ashoka's patronage; Moggaliputta Tissa presided
- Built 84,000 stupas (traditional claim); Sanchi Stupa (MP) — most famous
Ashoka's Welfare Measures
- Built hospitals for humans and animals
- Planted trees along roads; dug wells; built rest houses
- Appointed Dhamma Mahamattas (officers to oversee Dhamma)
- Advocated release of prisoners on festival days
Decline of the Maurya Empire
| Cause | Details |
|---|---|
| Weak successors | After Ashoka — Dasharatha, Samprati, Shalishuka — unable to hold empire together |
| Financial strain | Large army + welfare measures drained treasury |
| Brahmin resentment | Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism; reduced Brahmin influence |
| Over-centralisation | Empire too large; communications limited; revolts inevitable |
| Final end | Pushyamitra Shunga (commander-in-chief) assassinated last Maurya king Brihadratha (185 BCE); founded Shunga dynasty |
Post-Maurya Period (185 BCE – 320 CE)
Important Kingdoms
| Dynasty | Region | Notable Points |
|---|---|---|
| Shunga | Magadha (185–73 BCE) | Brahmin revival; Bharhut stupa |
| Kanva | Magadha (73–28 BCE) | Replaced Shungas |
| Satavahana | Deccan (1st c BCE – 3rd c CE) | Important for TN history — border with Tamil kingdoms; trade |
| Kushana | Northwest (1st–3rd c CE) | Kanishka — great patron of Buddhism; 4th Buddhist Council |
| Indo-Greek / Indo-Parthian | Northwest | Greek rulers; Milindapanha (Menander + Nagasena dialogue) |
Kanishka (Kushana):
- Greatest Kushana king; capital at Purushapura (Peshawar)
- 4th Buddhist Council at Kundalavana (Kashmir) — compiled Buddhist texts
- Great patron of Mahayana Buddhism; sent missionaries to China, Central Asia
- Mathura and Gandhara schools of art flourished
Gupta Empire (320–550 CE)
Foundation
- Sri Gupta — founder of Gupta dynasty (obscure early king)
- Ghatotkacha — son of Sri Gupta
- Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) — first great Gupta king; married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi; assumed title Maharajadhiraja; Gupta Era started 319–320 CE
Samudragupta (335–375 CE)
"Napoleon of India" — called so by historian V.A. Smith
| Campaign | Details |
|---|---|
| North Indian campaign | Defeated 9 kings; annexed their territories directly |
| South Indian campaign (Dakshinapatha) | Defeated 12 south Indian kings including Pallava king Vishnugopa (Kanchi); released them as vassals after homage |
| Forest kingdoms | Subdued tribal kingdoms |
| Frontier kingdoms | Received tribute from Kushanas, Sakas, Sri Lanka |
Allahabad Pillar Inscription: Written by court poet Harisena — describes Samudragupta's conquests; he is compared to Kubera (wealth), Yama (justice), Varuna (conduct), Indra (prowess).
Arts: Samudragupta was himself a poet and musician — depicted playing veena on coins.
Chandragupta II / Vikramaditya (375–415 CE)
Peak of Gupta Empire
| Achievement | Details |
|---|---|
| Conquest | Defeated Saka rulers of western India (Gujarat, Malwa) — last Saka king Rudrasimha III |
| Title | Vikramaditya (Sun of Valour) |
| Capital | Pataliputra; also used Ujjain |
| Chinese visitor | Fa Hien (Faxian) — visited India (399–414 CE); wrote account of prosperous, peaceful India |
| Navaratnas | 9 gems in his court — Kalidasa (poet), Aryabhata (mathematician), Varahamihira (astronomer), Amarsimha, Dhanvantri, and others |
Fa Hien's Account:
- People prosperous and happy
- No capital punishment (except treason)
- No tax on agricultural land (only 1/6 share)
- Nalanda — not yet a full university but learning centre developing
Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE)
- Founded Nalanda University (Bihar) — greatest ancient university; Buddhist learning centre; attracted students from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet
- Maintained empire but faced Huna invasions
Skandagupta (455–467 CE)
- Repelled Huna invasions temporarily — saved Gupta Empire
- After his death, Huna invasions resumed; Gupta Empire declined rapidly
Decline of Gupta Empire
| Cause | Details |
|---|---|
| Huna invasions | Mihirakula (Huna king) — brutal; devastated northwestern India |
| Weak successors | Post-Skandagupta rulers unable to hold empire |
| Feudal tendencies | Governors became independent; empire fragmented |
| Economic decline | Disruption of trade; decline of urban centres |
| End | By 550 CE, Gupta central authority collapsed; regional kingdoms (Harsha, Chalukyas, Pallavas) emerged |
Gupta Golden Age — Achievements
Mathematics
| Person | Achievement |
|---|---|
| Aryabhata (476–550 CE) | Zero concept (place value system); value of π = 3.1416; Earth rotates on its axis; Earth is round; solar and lunar eclipse explanation |
| Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) | Rules of algebra; negative numbers; zero as number; Brahmasphutasiddhanta |
| Varahamihira | Brihatsamhita (encyclopaedic work); Panchasiddhantika (five astronomical systems) |
Literature (Sanskrit Golden Age)
| Author | Work | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| Kalidasa | Abhijnanasakuntalam | Play — Shakuntala's story |
| Kalidasa | Meghadutam | Cloud messenger poem |
| Kalidasa | Raghuvamsam | Epic on Raghu dynasty |
| Kalidasa | Kumarasambhavam | Birth of Kartikeya |
| Kalidasa | Malavikagnimitram | Play |
| Vishakhadatta | Mudrarakshasa | Play on Chandragupta's rise |
| Sudraka | Mricchakatika (Little Clay Cart) | Social play |
| Vatsyayana | Kamasutra | Treatise on love/social life |
| Amarsimha | Amarakosha | Sanskrit dictionary |
Science and Technology
| Field | Achievement |
|---|---|
| Metallurgy | Iron Pillar of Delhi (near Qutub Minar) — 7.2 metres tall; 1,600+ years old; virtually no rust — advanced metallurgical knowledge |
| Medicine | Sushruta Samhita (plastic surgery, 300 operations described); Charaka Samhita (internal medicine); Vagbhata — Ashtangahridayam |
| Astronomy | Aryabhatiya — Earth's rotation; eclipse calculations; Surya Siddhanta |
Art and Architecture
| Type | Example |
|---|---|
| Ajanta Caves | Cave paintings (Aurangabad, Maharashtra) — Buddhist narratives; Gupta-era masterpieces (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17) |
| Ellora Caves | Buddhist, Hindu, Jain rock-cut temples |
| Nagara temple style | Curved shikhara (tower); Dashavatara temple, Deogarh (UP) |
| Mathura School | Indian-style Buddha image with transparent robe |
| Gupta coins | Elaborate gold coins depicting kings in various roles |
Buddhism and Jainism — Origins
Buddhism
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE); born at Lumbini (Nepal) |
| Enlightenment | Under Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya (Bihar); age 35 |
| First sermon | At Sarnath (Varanasi) — Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta — "Turning of the Wheel of Dhamma" |
| Death (Mahaparinirvana) | At Kushinagar (UP); age 80 |
| Four Noble Truths | Life is suffering (Dukkha); suffering has cause (Tanha — desire); suffering can end; path to end suffering (Eightfold Path) |
| Eightfold Path | Right View, Resolve, Speech, Conduct, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration |
| Buddhist Councils | 1st — Rajagriha (486 BCE, Ajatashatru); 2nd — Vaishali; 3rd — Pataliputra (Ashoka, 250 BCE); 4th — Kundalavana (Kanishka, 1st c CE) |
| Schools | Hinayana (Theravada — strict original); Mahayana (liberal — Buddha as divine) |
Jainism
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Last Tirthankara | Mahavira (599–527 BCE); born at Vaishali (Bihar); attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama; died at Pawapuri |
| 23rd Tirthankara | Parshvanatha (877–777 BCE) — historical figure; first Jain teacher with clear records |
| First Tirthankara | Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) — mythological |
| Three Jewels | Right faith, Right knowledge, Right conduct |
| Five Vows | Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truth (Satya), Non-stealing (Asteya), Chastity (Brahmacharya), Non-possession (Aparigraha) |
| Schools | Digambara (sky-clad — naked monks); Shvetambara (white-clad) |
| Texts | Agamas (12 Angas) — Shvetambara canon |
| Chandragupta Maurya | Converted to Jainism; died by Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) |
Comparison — Maurya vs Gupta
| Feature | Maurya | Gupta |
|---|---|---|
| Period | 322–185 BCE | 320–550 CE |
| Capital | Pataliputra | Pataliputra, Ujjain |
| Administration | Highly centralised | Decentralised (feudal tendencies) |
| Land revenue | 1/4 to 1/6 of produce | Lower taxes; Fa Hien noted no land tax |
| Religion | Ashoka promoted Buddhism/Dhamma | Hinduism dominant; but Buddhism patronised |
| Art style | Polished sandstone pillars; lion capital | Mathura school; Ajanta frescoes; Nagara temples |
| Key figure | Ashoka | Kalidasa, Aryabhata |
| Decline | Brahmin revolt (Pushyamitra Shunga) | Huna invasions |
Board Exam Tips — Maurya & Gupta
- Chandragupta Maurya founded Maurya Empire (322 BCE); capital Pataliputra; advisor = Chanakya
- Megasthenes = Greek ambassador; wrote Indica — describes Pataliputra
- Kalinga War = 261 BCE; Ashoka converted to Buddhism after it; promoted Dhamma
- Ashoka's Dhamma = ethical code for all; NOT Buddhism; Dhamma Mahamattas = officers
- Third Buddhist Council = Pataliputra (250 BCE), Ashoka's patronage; Mahendra + Sanghamitra sent to Sri Lanka
- Arthashastra = Chanakya; rediscovered 1905; Saptanga theory; Mandala theory
- Pushyamitra Shunga overthrew last Maurya (185 BCE); started Shunga dynasty
- Gupta Era = 319–320 CE (Chandragupta I started it)
- Samudragupta = "Napoleon of India" (V.A. Smith); Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Harisena)
- Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) = defeated Sakas; Fa Hien visited; Kalidasa was his court poet
- Nalanda University = founded by Kumaragupta I
- Aryabhata = zero, π = 3.1416, Earth rotates; Iron Pillar of Delhi = Gupta metallurgy
- Kalidasa = Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghadutam, Raghuvamsam (greatest Sanskrit poet)
- Ajanta Caves = Gupta period masterpieces; Buddhist narrative paintings
- Fa Hien (Faxian) = Chinese traveller; visited India during Chandragupta II; wrote about prosperity
- Buddhism: Boddhgaya = enlightenment; Sarnath = first sermon; Kushinagar = death
- Jainism: Mahavira = last (24th) Tirthankara; Vaishali; five vows; Digambara vs Shvetambara
Frequently Asked Questions
Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE) founded the Maurya Empire — India's first pan-Indian empire. Key facts: (1) Chandragupta overthrew the Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta), a Brahmin scholar from Takshashila; (2) He defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's general) around 305 BCE; Seleucus ceded large territories; treaty included a matrimonial alliance; Megasthenes sent as Greek ambassador to Pataliputra; (3) Chandragupta's empire extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east, and Deccan in the south; (4) He later converted to Jainism; abdicated in favour of his son Bindusara; fasted to death (Sallekhana) at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka; (5) Chanakya's Arthashastra provides the most detailed account of Mauryan administration — a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy.