Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
The Delhi Sultanate was established after Muhammad of Ghor's victory at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) over Prithviraj Chauhan. After Muhammad of Ghor's assassination (1206), his slave general Qutb-ud-din Aibak established the first dynasty.
1. Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206–1290)
| Ruler | Period | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Qutb-ud-din Aibak | 1206–1210 | Founded sultanate; began Qutb Minar; called "Lakh Baksh" (giver of lakhs) |
| Iltutmish | 1211–1236 | Consolidated sultanate; introduced silver tanka and copper jital coins; first sultan recognised by Caliph of Baghdad; completed Qutb Minar |
| Razia Sultana | 1236–1240 | India's first woman sultan; appeared in public unveiled; Turkish nobles opposed her |
| Balban | 1266–1287 | Iron-fisted rule; "Theory of divine kingship" (zill-i-Ilahi); eliminated Turkish nobles (chahalgani/forty) |
Qutb Minar: 72.5 m tall; built in Delhi; UNESCO World Heritage Site. Began by Qutb-ud-din Aibak; completed by Iltutmish.
2. Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)
| Ruler | Period | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Jalal-ud-din Khilji | 1290–1296 | Founded dynasty; killed by nephew Alauddin |
| Alauddin Khilji | 1296–1316 | Greatest Khilji; Deccan campaigns; market reforms; repelled 4 Mongol invasions |
| Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah | 1316–1320 | Killed by Khusrau Khan; end of Khilji rule |
Alauddin Khilji — Key Achievements:
- Military: Conquered Deccan — Devagiri (1296, 1307), Warangal (1310), Dwarsamudra (Hoysalas), Madurai (1311). General Malik Kafur led southern campaigns
- Market reforms: Four regulated markets (grain, cattle, horse, cloth) with fixed prices and strict enforcement
- Architecture: Alai Darwaza (gateway to Qutb complex); began Alai Minar (intended to be twice height of Qutb — never completed)
- Revenue: Introduced direct land revenue assessment (kharaj = 50% of produce); khams (1/5 of war booty to state)
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)
| Ruler | Period | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | 1320–1325 | Founded dynasty; good administrator |
| Muhammad bin Tughlaq | 1325–1351 | Brilliant but erratic; 5 controversial experiments |
| Firuz Shah Tughlaq | 1351–1388 | Welfare works; canals; banned torture |
Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Five Experiments:
1. Transfer of capital (1327): Delhi → Daulatabad (Devagiri, Maharashtra) — 1,500 km south. Forced entire Delhi population to march. Failed — returned to Delhi. 2. Token currency: Bronze/copper coins to replace silver (1329–1330). Public refused; debased currency; abandoned. 3. Taxation in Doab: Raised taxes in Gangetic plain (Doab region) during famine — caused mass revolt. 4. Khorasan expedition: Failed attempt to conquer Khorasan (Central Asia). 5. Qarachil expedition: Failed campaign in Himalayan foothills.
Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller) visited Muhammad bin Tughlaq's court — left detailed account of Sultanate society in "Rihla."
Firuz Shah Tughlaq:
- Built 4 new cities including Firozabad; 300 new towns
- Dug irrigation canals — among earliest in India
- Abolished torture; banned unlawful taxes
- Weakness: over-relied on nobles; sultanate's real decline began
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)
- Four weak rulers; real power with regional governors
- Delhi's political reach shrank to small area around capital
- Invited Lodi dynasty to take over
5. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)
| Ruler | Period | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Bahlul Lodi | 1451–1489 | Founded dynasty; Afghan (Pashtun) background — first Afghan rulers |
| Sikandar Lodi | 1489–1517 | Strong ruler; founded Agra (1504); banned music; enforced orthodoxy |
| Ibrahim Lodi | 1517–1526 | Defeated at First Battle of Panipat (1526) by Babur |
First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur used artillery (gunpowder — new to India); Ibrahim Lodi killed. Established Mughal Empire.
Delhi Sultanate — Administration
Departments:
- Diwan-i-Wizarat: Finance department
- Diwan-i-Arz: Military department (established by Balban)
- Diwan-i-Insha: Royal correspondence
- Diwan-i-Rasalat: Appeals and religious matters
Provincial administration: Province (Iqta) → District (Shiq) → Village (Pargana)
Iqta system: Grant of revenue from land given to military officers (iqtadars) instead of salary. Officers collected revenue, maintained troops, sent surplus to centre.
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Founding
Founded: 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya (Sangama brothers) at Hampi on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River (Karnataka).
Motivation: Resist Delhi Sultanate expansion into South India. The empire served as the last major Hindu political power in the Deccan.
Capital: Hampi (Vijayanagara) — now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Four Dynasties
| Dynasty | Period | Notable Ruler |
|---|---|---|
| Sangama | 1336–1485 | Harihara I, Bukka Raya I, Deva Raya II |
| Saluva | 1485–1505 | Narasimha Saluva |
| Tuluva | 1505–1570 | Krishnadevaraya (greatest ruler) |
| Aravidu | 1570–1646 | Tirumala Raya |
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) — Greatest Ruler
Called: "Andhra Bhoja" (patron of literature); "Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana"
Military:
- Defeated Bijapur Sultanate at Battle of Raichur (1520) — recaptured Raichur doab
- Defeated Bahmani Kingdom successors; controlled entire South India
- Friendly relations with Portuguese (Goa); traded war horses
Literary patronage — Ashtadiggajas (Eight Poets): Eight poets adorned his court — greatest was Allasani Peddana (wrote Manucharitra in Telugu; called "Andhra Kavita Pitamaha"). Others: Nandi Timmana, Madayagari Mallana.
Krishnadevaraya's own writings:
- Amuktamalyada (Telugu) — poem on Andal (Vaishnava saint of Tamil Nadu — Goda Devi)
- Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya — Sanskrit plays
- Jambavati Kalyanam — Sanskrit play
Architecture:
- Hampi temples — Vittala Temple (iconic stone chariot, musical pillars), Hazara Rama Temple
- Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes (1520s): "Vijayanagara is the best-provided city in the world"
- Duarte Barbosa, Fernao Nuniz — other Portuguese accounts of Hampi's splendour
Battle of Talikota (1565)
Four Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda) combined against Vijayanagara.
- Vijayanagara king Aliya Rama Raya was captured and beheaded on the battlefield
- Hampi was systematically looted and razed — never recovered
- Vijayanagara empire technically continued under Aravidu dynasty but as a shadow
Tamil Nadu and Vijayanagara
- Vijayanagara controlled much of Tamil Nadu for 200+ years
- Nayaks (provincial governors) were appointed by Vijayanagara kings — Nayaks of Madurai, Thanjavur, Gingee became independent after Talikota
- Madurai Nayaks (1529–1736): Tirumalai Nayak most famous; built Meenakshi Amman Temple complex additions, Thirumalai Nayak Palace
- Thanjavur Nayaks → replaced by Thanjavur Marathas (Venkoji/Ekoji, Shivaji's half-brother)
Bhakti Movement
Overview
The Bhakti movement (c. 6th–17th century CE) was a devotional revolution across India that:
- Emphasised personal devotion (bhakti) to God over rituals, caste, and priestly mediation
- Was inclusive — saints from lower castes (weavers, cobblers, untouchables) became revered teachers
- Expressed in vernacular languages — Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Hindi, Marathi, Bengali — making religion accessible
Tamil Bhakti is the earliest in India — Alvars (Vaishnava) and Nayanmars (Saiva) c. 6th–9th century CE preceded North Indian Bhakti by centuries.
South Indian Bhakti
Alvars (Vaishnava, 6th–9th century):
- 12 Alvars; composed Nalayira Divya Prabandham (4,000 hymns)
- Nammalvar — greatest Alvar; composed Tiruvaimozhi
- Andal — only woman Alvar; Tiruppavai (30 hymns); worshipped at Srivilliputhur (Tamil Nadu)
- Theological development: Ramanuja (11th–12th century, Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu) — Vishishtadvaita; bhakti available to all castes; strongly influenced Vaishnavism nationally
Nayanmars (Saiva, 6th–9th century):
- 63 Nayanmars; composed Tevaram (hymns on Shiva)
- Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar — three main Tevaram composers
- Manickavasagar — Tiruvachakam
- Sekkizhar — Periyapuranam (life stories of 63 Nayanmars)
North Indian Bhakti Saints
| Saint | Region | Period | Deity | Key Teaching |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ramananda | Varanasi | 14th–15th c. | Rama | Bhakti open to all — accepted disciples of any caste; Kabir was his disciple |
| Kabir | Varanasi | 1440–1518 | Nirguna (formless) | Rejected caste, rituals, religious orthodoxy; "Hindu and Muslim are the same pot" |
| Mirabai | Rajasthan | 1498–1547 | Krishna | Personal devotion; songs of longing; rejected caste marriage conventions |
| Tulsidas | Varanasi | 1532–1623 | Rama | Ramcharitmanas (Awadhi Hindi Ramayana); made Rama accessible to masses |
| Surdas | Mathura | 1478–1563 | Krishna | Blind poet; Sur Sagar (100,000 verses); child Krishna's exploits |
| Chaitanya | Bengal | 1486–1534 | Krishna | Ecstatic devotion (kirtan); Gaudiya Vaishnavism; influenced ISKCON |
| Tukaram | Maharashtra | 1608–1649 | Vitthal | Abhangas (devotional songs); social equality; Varkari tradition |
| Eknath | Maharashtra | 1533–1599 | Vitthal | Translated Bhagavata Purana into Marathi; worked with lower castes |
| Namdev | Maharashtra | 1270–1350 | Vitthal | Tailor-saint; poems in Punjabi (also in Guru Granth Sahib) |
Kabir's significance:
- Weaver by caste; disciples were both Hindu and Muslim
- Dohas (couplets) teach direct experience of the divine without ritual
- Famous doha: "Bura jo dekhan main chala, bura na milya koi / Jo dil khoja aapna, mujhse bura na koi" (I went looking for the bad person, found none; when I searched my own heart, I found no one worse than me)
- His followers are called Kabirpanthis
Sufi Movement
What is Sufism?
Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam — seeking direct personal experience of God through love, devotion, music (sama/qawwali), and the guidance of a spiritual master (Pir/Sheikh).
Key concepts:
- Tawhid: Oneness of God
- Fana: Annihilation of self in God
- Silsila: Spiritual chain/lineage (order)
- Khanqah: Sufi hospice where disciples gathered
- Dargah: Shrine of a deceased Sufi saint
Major Sufi Orders in India
| Order (Silsila) | Key Figure | Location | Characteristic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chishti | Moinuddin Chishti | Ajmer (Rajasthan) | Most popular in India; music (qawwali); open to all castes; refused royal patronage |
| Suhrawardi | Bahauddin Zakariya | Multan | Accepted royal grants; more orthodox |
| Naqshbandi | Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi | Punjab | Opposed Akbar's liberalism; strict Sunni |
| Qadiri | Shah Abdul Qadir | North India | Shah Waliullah was later notable figure |
Chishti order key figures:
- Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer): Came to India with Muhammad of Ghor's campaigns; preached among poor; Ajmer dargah visited by Akbar regularly; most important Sufi shrine in India
- Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi): Iltutmish's contemporary
- Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi): Most famous Delhi Sufi; Amir Khusrau was his disciple; refused to meet sultans ("Two swords cannot be in one scabbard")
- Amir Khusrau: Poet, musician; invented sitar (disputed) and tabla (disputed); pioneered qawwali music; wrote in Persian and Hindavi (early Hindi)
Tamil Nadu Sufism:
- Nagore Dargah (Nagapattinam): Hazrat Mian Sahib (Shahul Hamid); 16th century; one of India's most important dargahs; pilgrimage cuts across Hindu and Muslim communities
- Erwadi Dargah (Ramanathapuram): Ibrahim Shaheed; significant pilgrimage site
Board Exam Tips
- Delhi Sultanate: 5 dynasties in order — Slave (1206), Khilji (1290), Tughlaq (1320), Sayyid (1414), Lodi (1451). Ends First Battle of Panipat 1526.
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak: founded sultanate, began Qutb Minar. Iltutmish: first silver tanka, first Caliph-recognised sultan, completed Qutb Minar.
- Razia Sultana: first woman sultan. Balban: divine kingship theory.
- Alauddin Khilji: market reforms (4 markets), Deccan campaigns (Malik Kafur), repelled Mongols.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq: capital to Daulatabad; token currency — both failed.
- Vijayanagara: founded 1336, Harihara-Bukka, Hampi (Tungabhadra). Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva): Amuktamalyada, Battle of Raichur 1520, Ashtadiggajas.
- Battle of Talikota 1565: Vijayanagara destroyed by Deccan Sultanates.
- Bhakti: Kabir (nirguna, anti-caste), Mirabai (Krishna), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Chaitanya (Bengal).
- Sufism: Chishti order most important in India; Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer); Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi); Amir Khusrau (qawwali, Hindavi poetry).
- Tamil Nadu: Alvars and Nayanmars = earliest Bhakti in India. Nagore Dargah = major TN Sufi site.