Sangam Age (3rd Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)
Political Setup
Three crowned kingdoms (Muvendar — the three crowned ones):
- Cheras: Western Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Capital: Vanji (Karur). Famous king: Cheran Senguttuvan (built the first Kannagi temple).
- Cholas: North-eastern Tamil Nadu (Kaveri delta, Puhar/Kaveripattinam). Capital: Urayur, later Poompuhar.
- Pandyas: Southern Tamil Nadu. Capital: Madurai. Famous for three Sangam literary academies.
Palayam / subsidiary chiefs:
- Vel chiefs, Eyinar, Marar, Aguvalar — smaller chieftains allied with the crowned kings.
Sangam Literature
Sangam literary corpus contains approximately 2,381 poems by 473 poets on human and social themes.
Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai):
- Purananuru (400 poems on war, kingship, death)
- Akananuru (400 love poems)
- Kurunthokai, Natrinai, Kalittokai, Ainkurunuru, Pathitrupathu, Paripatal
Ten Idylls (Pattuppattu):
- Thirumurugatrupadai, Mullaipattu, Mathuraikkanci, Nedunal Vadai, Pattinappalai, Malaipadukadam, Kurinjipattu, Porunararrupadai, Sirupanatrupadai, Perumpanarrupadai
Grammar: Tolkappiyam — oldest surviving Tamil grammar text. Three divisions: Ezhuttadikaram (letters), Collatikaram (words), Porulatikaram (meaning). Compiled by Tolkappiyar.
Five landscape divisions (Tinai system):
- Kurinji (mountains) — love
- Mullai (forests) — waiting
- Marutham (farmland) — infidelity
- Neytal (coast) — longing
- Palai (desert) — separation
Trade in the Sangam Age
Extensive maritime trade with Rome, Greece, Arabia, and Southeast Asia. Ports:
- Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam): Chola port on the Cauvery delta. Ships carried pepper, pearls, ivory, muslin.
- Korkai: Pandya port near Tuticorin. Known for pearl fishing.
Pallavas (3rd Century CE – 897 CE)
Political History
The Pallavas rose to power in the 4th century and reached their peak under Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I. Capital: Kanchipuram.
Key rulers:
- Simhavishnu (550–590 CE): Founded the Pallava kingdom in Tondaimandalam. Defeated the Cholas and Kalabhras.
- Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE): Poet, playwright, musician. Wrote Mattavilasa Prahasanam (a Sanskrit play). Converted from Jainism to Shaivism after influence of Thirunavukkarasar (Appar).
- Narasimhavarman I / Mamalla (630–668 CE): Defeated Pulakesi II of Chalukyas at Vatapi (639 CE). Famous for Mamallapuram rock-cut temples and Rathas.
- Rajasimha / Narasimhavarman II (695–728 CE): Built Shore Temple at Mamallapuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram.
Pallava Architecture
Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) — UNESCO World Heritage Site:
- Seven Pagodas: only Shore Temple survives
- Pancha Rathas (Five Chariots): monolithic rock-cut temples named after Pandavas
- Rock-cut cave temples: Mahishasuramardhini cave, Varaha cave
- Arjuna's Penance (Descent of Ganges): largest open-air rock relief in India
Kanchipuram temples: Kailasanatha Temple (oldest temple in Tamil Nadu's modern style), Vaikunta Perumal Temple.
Bhakti Movement under Pallavas
The Pallava period saw the flourishing of Tamil Bhakti literature:
- Saiva Nayanmars (63 saints): Appar, Thirugnana Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavasagar. Compiled in Thirumurai (Tamil Vedas).
- Vaishnava Alwars (12 saints): Nammalwar, Andal, Thirumazhisai Alwar. Compiled in Nalayira Divya Prabandham.
Chola Empire (850–1279 CE)
Rise of Imperial Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola (850 CE): Captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars — beginning of Imperial Cholas.
Aditya I (871–907 CE): Defeated Pallavas; expanded Chola territory.
Parantaka I (907–955 CE): Conquered Pandya kingdom, Eelam (Sri Lanka). Donated gold roof to Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
Peak: Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I
Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014 CE):
- Extended empire: conquered Pandyas, Cheras, northern Sri Lanka (Eelam), Maldives.
- Built Brihadeeswarar (Big Temple) at Thanjavur — 1010 CE. UNESCO World Heritage.
- Naval power: controlled the Bay of Bengal trade.
Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE):
- Called "Gangaikonda Cholan" — led military expedition to Ganges river in north India.
- Founded new capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
- Built Gangaikondacholapuram Temple — rivalling the Big Temple.
- Naval expedition to Southeast Asia (1025 CE): Defeated Srivijaya Empire (Sumatra/Malay Peninsula) — one of the greatest naval campaigns of medieval Asia.
Chola Administration
Mandalam → Vlanadu → Nadu → Ur (village): Multi-level administrative hierarchy.
Village assemblies:
- Ur: general assembly of all residents
- Sabha: assembly of Brahmin landowners (Agraharas)
- Nagaram: merchant assembly in trading towns
Uttiramerur inscriptions: Famous 9th–10th century inscriptions (Kanchipuram district) recording detailed rules for village self-governance — eligibility for committees, term limits, disqualification criteria.
Chola Art and Architecture
Three UNESCO World Heritage "Great Living Chola Temples": 1. Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (Raja Raja I, 1010 CE) 2. Gangaikondacholapuram Temple (Rajendra I, 1035 CE) 3. Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram (Rajaraja II, 12th century CE)
Bronze sculpture: Chola bronzes are masterpieces of Indian art. The Nataraja (Shiva as lord of dance) is the most iconic. Cast by lost-wax (cire perdue) method.
Pandyas (Sangam Age + Medieval Period)
The Pandyas ruled southern Tamil Nadu with Madurai as their capital across two major periods:
Sangam Pandyas: Nedum Cheliyan, Mudathirumaran.
Medieval Pandyas: Rose again in the 9th century.
- Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (1251–1268 CE): Most powerful medieval Pandya king. Defeated Cholas and Hoysalas, extended empire across South India.
- Marco Polo (1293 CE): Visited the Pandya kingdom during the reign of Sundara Pandya and described the pearl fisheries of Korkai.
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE)
Founding and Rise
Founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (1336 CE) at Hampi (Hosapattana / Vijayanagara) on the south bank of Tungabhadra river. Capital: Vijayanagara (Hampi), now in Karnataka.
Sangama dynasty → Saluva dynasty → Tuluva dynasty (most powerful):
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE), Tuluva dynasty:
- Greatest Vijayanagara ruler.
- Telugu poet — composed Amuktamalyada.
- Court had Ashtadiggajas (eight literary elephants).
- Defeated Bidar, Bijapur, and Prataparudra of Odisha.
- Rebuilt Tirupati temple; patronised many temples in Tamil Nadu.
Battle of Talikota (1565 CE)
Coalition of Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda defeated Vijayanagara. Vijayanagara city was sacked. Empire declined rapidly after this.
Nayakas of Tamil Nadu
After Talikota, Nayak governors became effectively independent:
- Madurai Nayaks (1529–1736): Thirumalai Nayak built the Thirumalai Nayakkar Palace in Madurai (1636). Added massive structures to Meenakshi Amman Temple.
- Thanjavur Nayaks (1532–1673): Patronised Marathi culture; Thanjavur became a centre of learning.
- Senji (Gingee) Nayaks: Chola Nayaks, later became independent.
Mughal Empire — Impact on Tamil Nadu
The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) had limited direct presence in deep south India. However:
- Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns (1681–1707): Extended Mughal authority to much of the Deccan, but Tamil Nadu remained under Nayaks and later Nawabs of Arcot.
- Nawab of Arcot (Nawab of the Carnatic): Mughal-appointed governors who became independent. Controlled much of Tamil Nadu in the 18th century during the decline of Vijayanagara Nayaks.
- The struggle between the Nawabs, Marathas, Mysore (Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan), and the British East India Company shaped Tamil Nadu's late medieval history.
Board Exam Tips
- Brihadeeswarar Temple builder: Raja Raja Chola I (not Rajendra Chola I).
- UNESCO World Heritage Great Living Chola Temples: 3 temples — Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram, Darasuram.
- Sangam period: ~3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE. Tolkappiyam = oldest Tamil grammar.
- Pallava capital: Kanchipuram. Shore Temple at Mamallapuram built by Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II).
- Vijayanagara Battle of Talikota: 1565 CE — frequently confused with Battle of Panipat dates.
- Krishnadevaraya: Telugu language poet. Composed Amuktamalyada. Greatest Vijayanagara ruler.
- Rajendra Chola's naval expedition: 1025 CE against Srivijaya — one of the most unique TNPSC questions.