NCERT Solutions for Class 6 Social Science History Chapter 10 New Empires and Kingdoms | KalviGavani

History Chapter 10 — New Empires and Kingdoms NCERT Exercise Solutions

Welcome to the NCERT exercise solutions for Class 6 Social Science History Chapter 10 — New Empires and Kingdoms. This chapter introduces you to the powerful empires and kingdoms that rose in India after the decline of the Mauryas, with a special focus on the Gupta Empire, the reign of Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, the kingdom of Harsha, the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II, and the administrative structures that shaped medieval India. You will learn about Prashastis as historical sources, the role of samantas, the functioning of village assemblies, and the far-reaching effects of land grants on society. Every question below is answered in detail so that you can understand the concepts deeply and write well-structured answers in your exams.

How to Use This Page

1. Read the textbook first — Go through NCERT History Chapter 10 at least once before reading these solutions, so the context is clear and the answers make sense. 2. Study the Key Concepts table — Review the quick-recap table to refresh the most important terms and their definitions before attempting questions. 3. Attempt Intext Questions — Try the textbook intext questions on your own first, then compare your answers with the detailed solutions provided here. 4. Work through Chapter-End Exercises — Read each question carefully, write your own answer, and then check it against the model answer to fill gaps. 5. Practise the MCQs — Solve the multiple choice questions to test recall and identify weak areas; read the explanation for each correct option. 6. Review Common Mistakes — Go through the common mistakes section to avoid the errors that most students make in this chapter. 7. Use the Exam Checklist — Before your exam, go through the checklist to confirm you have covered every key topic and can write answers confidently.

Key Concepts (Quick Recap)

Intext Questions

Q1: Who were the Gupta rulers and what was special about their period?

The Gupta dynasty ruled over a large part of northern India from approximately the 4th century to the 6th century CE. The dynasty was founded by Sri Gupta, and its most prominent rulers included Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II. The Gupta period is considered special because it witnessed remarkable achievements in multiple fields. In science and mathematics, Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiyam, explained eclipses, and proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis. The decimal system and the concept of zero gained wider use during this time. In literature, Kalidasa composed celebrated works such as Abhijnanashakuntalam and Meghaduta. Iron technology advanced significantly, as seen in the famous Iron Pillar at Mehrauli near Delhi, which has not rusted for over 1,500 years. Nalanda University emerged as a major centre of learning, attracting students from across Asia. Administrative efficiency, flourishing trade, and the patronage of arts and religion under Gupta rulers collectively earned this era the title of a golden age in Indian history.

Q2: What does the Prashasti of Samudragupta tell us about him?

The Prashasti of Samudragupta, composed by his court poet Harishena and inscribed on the Allahabad pillar, is one of the most detailed eulogies from ancient India. It tells us that Samudragupta was a great warrior who conquered many kings across different regions. He defeated nine kings of Aryavarta in north India and then performed the ashvamedha sacrifice to assert his imperial status. The Prashasti mentions that rulers of the south, including those of the Pallava, Chola, and Satavahana lineages, accepted his authority and paid him tribute. Frontier kings and tribal chieftains also submitted to him. Beyond his military achievements, the Prashasti highlights Samudragupta's accomplishments in the arts — it describes him as a skilled musician who played the veena and as a patron of poets and scholars. The inscription also emphasises his generosity and his commitment to helping the poor and the distressed. While the Prashasti is clearly a flattering account written by a court poet, it still provides valuable information about the political geography of India during Samudragupta's reign and the nature of his empire.

Q3: How do we know about Harsha and his rule?

We know about Harsha and his rule from several important sources. The most significant is the Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, who was Harsha's court poet. This biography gives a detailed account of Harsha's early life, his rise to power after the death of his brother-in-law Rajyavardhana, and his military campaigns. Banabhatta describes how Harsha consolidated his kingdom centred at Kannauj and extended his influence across much of northern India. Another major source is the account of the Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsang), who visited India during Harsha's reign and wrote extensively about the political conditions, the king's patronage of Buddhism, and the state of education at Nalanda. Inscriptions and coins from Harsha's period also provide information about his administration and territorial extent. From these sources we learn that Harsha was an able administrator who maintained a large army, supported both Hinduism and Buddhism, and organised a grand assembly at Kannauj. Despite his military successes, he could not defeat Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty, which limited his influence to north India.

Q4: What were samantas and how did they become powerful?

Samantas were subordinate rulers or chieftains who acknowledged the overlordship of a more powerful king. In return for their submission, they were allowed to govern their own territories, but they had to provide military assistance to their overlord whenever required and pay regular tribute. The position of samantas was initially part of a hierarchical political structure in which a powerful king controlled smaller rulers. However, over time, many samantas grew powerful enough to challenge their overlords. This happened for several reasons. First, when a central king was weak or busy with other conflicts, samantas could consolidate their own power without interference. Second, land grants given to samantas and their allies gave them economic resources and local support that strengthened their independence. Third, samantas often built their own armies and forged alliances with other regional powers. As a result, some samantas declared independence and established their own kingdoms. This pattern of rising and falling loyalties became a defining feature of the political landscape in India during and after the Gupta period.

Q5: How were villages administered during this period?

Villages during the Gupta and post-Gupta period were administered through local assemblies that handled day-to-day governance. In southern India, inscriptions mention three main types of assemblies. The Sabha was an assembly of brahmin landowners, usually found in villages that had received brahmadeya (land grants to brahmins). The Sabha managed land disputes, oversaw charitable endowments, maintained irrigation works, and settled local disputes. The Ur was an assembly of non-brahmin landowners and handled similar administrative functions in villages that were not brahmadeya settlements. The Nagaram was an assembly of merchants and traders, typically found in towns, and it supervised commercial activities, trade regulations, and urban administration. These assemblies were not entirely democratic — membership was restricted to influential landowners and merchants — but they did provide a degree of local self-governance. The king appointed officials to oversee the assemblies and collect revenue, but much of the routine administration was left to these local bodies. This system allowed villages a measure of autonomy while keeping them integrated within the broader political structure of the kingdom.

Chapter-End Exercise Questions

Q1: What changes in the Gupta period made it known as a golden age?

The Gupta period is often called a golden age because of the extraordinary progress India made in science, mathematics, literature, art, and administration. In mathematics, Aryabhata calculated the value of pi to four decimal places, explained that the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, and pioneered the use of the decimal system. The concept of zero as a numeral was also developed during this era, which revolutionised mathematics worldwide. In literature, Sanskrit flourished under royal patronage. Kalidasa, often called the Shakespeare of India, wrote masterpieces such as Abhijnanashakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam, and Meghaduta. Banabhatta composed the Harshacharita and Kadambari. In science and technology, metallurgy advanced significantly — the Iron Pillar at Mehrauli, made during this period, has resisted rust for over fifteen centuries. In education, Nalanda University became one of the world's foremost centres of learning. In administration, the Gupta rulers maintained a well-organised system of local governance through village assemblies and efficient revenue collection. Trade with other countries expanded, bringing prosperity. Temple architecture saw the beginning of structural temples that evolved into the magnificent styles of later centuries. All these achievements together justify calling the Gupta period a golden age of Indian history.

Q2: Describe Samudragupta's conquests as mentioned in the Prashasti on the Allahabad pillar.

The Prashasti on the Allahabad pillar, composed by Samudragupta's court poet Harishena, provides a detailed account of his military conquests. According to the inscription, Samudragupta first defeated nine kings of Aryavarta, the region of northern India. These kings were either killed or forcibly assimilated into his empire. He then turned his attention to the rulers of Dakshinapatha (the southern regions). The Prashasti lists twelve southern kings whom Samudragupta defeated, including rulers of the Pallava, Chola, and Satavahana lineages. Unlike the northern kings, the southern rulers were allowed to continue governing their territories after they acknowledged Samudragupta's supremacy and paid tribute. The Prashasti also mentions that kings of the frontier regions, including those in the east and west, as well as tribal chieftains, submitted to Samudragupta willingly. Some of these rulers sent envoys and gifts, while others offered their daughters in marriage to strengthen alliances. After these conquests, Samudragupta performed the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), which was a symbolic assertion of his status as a chakravartin — a universal ruler. The Prashasti also records that rulers of distant lands, including the Sakas and Kushanas, accepted his authority. The detailed geographical spread of these conquests demonstrates that Samudragupta's empire extended across a very large part of the Indian subcontinent.

Q3: Who was Harsha and what do we know about his administration?

Harsha, also known as Harshavardhana, was one of the most important rulers of early seventh-century India. He came to power around 606 CE after the deaths of his brother Rajyavardhana and his brother-in-law Prabhakarvardhana, and he established his capital at Kannauj. Our knowledge of Harsha comes primarily from the Harshacharita by his court poet Banabhatta and the travel accounts of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuan Zang. Harsha's administration was highly centralised. He maintained a large standing army, reportedly with a significant number of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. He personally oversaw the collection of revenue and the administration of justice, and he is said to have held court daily to hear petitions from his subjects. Harsha was a patron of both Hinduism and Buddhism — he performed Vedic sacrifices while also supporting Buddhist monasteries and the famous Nalanda University. He organised a grand religious assembly at Kannauj that was attended by scholars, monks, and kings from various regions. Despite his military capabilities, Harsha could not defeat Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty, as recorded in the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin. This meant that Harsha's empire was largely confined to northern India. Harsha was also a writer himself, credited with composing three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda.

Q4: What were Prashastis and how were they used by kings?

Prashastis were literary compositions written in praise of kings and rulers, usually by court poets who were patronised by the ruler they described. These compositions were often inscribed on stone pillars, temple walls, or copper plates and were displayed publicly. The primary purpose of a Prashasti was to glorify the king — it described his lineage, his military victories, his personal qualities such as bravery and generosity, and his devotion to duty. For example, the Prashasti of Samudragupta composed by Harishena on the Allahabad pillar describes Samudragupta as a great warrior, a skilled musician, and a generous patron. Kings used Prashastis as instruments of political legitimacy. By having a learned poet compose an elaborate eulogy and inscribing it on a durable medium, a king could project an image of power and divine right that would be seen by subjects, visitors, and future generations. Prashastis also served to communicate the extent of a king's dominion by listing the territories and rulers he had conquered or subdued. However, historians must read Prashastis critically because they are not objective records — they exaggerate the ruler's achievements and omit failures. By comparing Prashastis with other sources such as coins, inscriptions, and travellers' accounts, historians can separate factual information from literary embellishment.

Q5: Explain the role of samantas in the political structure of this period.

Samantas played a crucial and evolving role in the political structure of India during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. A samanta was a subordinate ruler — often a local chieftain, a defeated king, or a powerful landowner — who acknowledged the overlordship of a more powerful king. In return, the samanta was allowed to govern his own territory, maintain a local army, and collect revenue, provided he supplied military forces to his overlord when required and paid regular tribute. This arrangement created a layered political hierarchy in which a single king could exercise influence over a vast territory without directly administering every region. The system had advantages for both parties: the overlord gained military and financial support without the cost of direct administration, and the samanta retained local power. However, this structure also carried risks. When the central king was strong, samantas remained loyal. But when the king was weak or preoccupied, ambitious samantas could refuse to pay tribute, withhold military support, or even declare independence. Over time, as land grants increased and local power centres grew stronger, many samantas consolidated their position and established their own independent kingdoms. This pattern of decentralisation and the rise of regional powers became a defining characteristic of Indian political history in the centuries following the Gupta period.

Q6: What were the different types of assemblies mentioned in inscriptions of this period?

Inscriptions from the Gupta and post-Gupta periods mention several types of local assemblies that played an important role in village and town administration, especially in southern India. The Sabha was an assembly of brahmin landowners, typically found in brahmadeya villages (villages granted to brahmins). The Sabha was responsible for managing land disputes among its members, overseeing irrigation and water management, maintaining charitable endowments such as temples and rest houses, and resolving local conflicts. Membership was restricted to influential brahmin landowners, and decisions were made collectively. The Ur was an assembly of non-brahmin landowners and was common in villages that were not brahmadeya settlements. The Ur handled similar administrative tasks, including tax collection, dispute resolution, and community welfare. The Nagaram was an assembly of merchants and traders, found primarily in towns and urban centres. The Nagaram supervised trade, regulated markets, collected commercial taxes, and managed urban infrastructure. In some regions, inscriptions also mention the Nadu, which was a larger administrative unit comprising several villages and functioned as a district-level assembly. These assemblies collectively demonstrate that local governance in ancient India was not solely top-down — there were established mechanisms for community participation in administration, even if membership was limited to elite groups. The effectiveness of these assemblies varied depending on the strength of the central authority and the nature of local power dynamics.

Q7: How did the system of land grants affect the administration and the peasants?

The system of land grants had far-reaching consequences for both administration and the peasant population in ancient India. Land grants were parcels of land given by kings to brahmins, religious institutions, officials, and sometimes samantas as rewards for service or as charitable endowments. These grants were typically recorded on copper plates and came with specific rights and privileges. From the administrative perspective, land grants meant that the king transferred not just the land but also the right to collect revenue from it. As a result, the king's direct control over territory and revenue gradually diminished. The recipients of land grants became local power centres with their own economic base, and many of them exercised administrative and judicial authority over the peasants living on their land. Over time, this weakened central authority and contributed to the fragmentation of kingdoms. For the peasants, the impact of land grants was significant and often negative. When a village was granted to a brahmin or an official, the peasants living on that land became subordinate to the grant holder. They had to pay taxes and provide labour to the new authority, who often had the power to increase tax rates or impose new obligations. Since the grant holders were not always accountable to the king, peasants had limited recourse against exploitation. The grant holder could also restrict the peasants' freedom of movement, effectively tying them to the land. The system of land grants thus created a hierarchical structure in which the grant holders occupied a position between the king and the peasantry, fundamentally altering the relationship between rulers and the ruled.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ Practice)

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Confusing Harishena with Banabhatta Many students mix up the court poets of different kings. Harishena composed the Prashasti of Samudragupta (Allahabad pillar inscription), while Banabhatta wrote the Harshacharita about King Harsha. Always remember: Harishena for Samudragupta, Banabhatta for Harsha.

2. Treating Prashastis as entirely factual records A common mistake is accepting Prashastis at face value. Prashastis are eulogies written by court poets to glorify kings — they exaggerate achievements and omit failures. Always read them critically and cross-reference with other sources such as coins, travellers' accounts, and independent inscriptions.

3. Confusing Sabha, Ur, and Nagaram Students often mix up the different types of assemblies. Remember: Sabha was for brahmin landowners (in brahmadeya villages), Ur was for non-brahmin landowners (in ordinary villages), and Nagaram was for merchants and traders (in towns). Each had a distinct membership and function.

4. Thinking samantas were always loyal It is incorrect to assume that samantas were uniformly obedient subordinates. While they provided military support and tribute when the central king was strong, many samantas became independent or even challenged their overlords when the king was weak. The samanta system was inherently unstable.

5. Assuming land grants only benefited the recipients Students often overlook the impact of land grants on peasants. While grants rewarded brahmins and officials, they also meant that peasants on granted land lost direct access to the king's protection and became subject to the authority of the grant holder, who could impose additional taxes and labour demands.

6. Confusing the Gupta period with the Mauryan period Some students treat the Gupta and Mauryan empires as the same. The Mauryan Empire (4th–2nd century BCE) preceded the Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE) by several centuries. Ashoka belonged to the Mauryan dynasty, while Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were Gupta rulers. Do not mix up rulers, sources, or events from these two distinct periods.

Exam Checklist

Before your exam, make sure you can confidently answer the following:

• [ ] Explain why the Gupta period is called a golden age, with at least four specific examples.
• [ ] Describe the main points of Samudragupta's Prashasti on the Allahabad pillar.
• [ ] Identify Harishena as the composer of Samudragupta's Prashasti and Banabhatta as the author of the Harshacharita.
• [ ] Explain what Prashastis are, their purpose, and why historians must read them critically.
• [ ] Describe the role and evolving power of samantas in the political structure.
• [ ] Distinguish between Sabha, Ur, and Nagaram assemblies and explain their functions.
• [ ] Summarise what we know about Harsha from the Harshacharita and Xuan Zang's accounts.
• [ ] Explain the system of land grants and their impact on administration and peasants.
• [ ] State why Harsha could not expand into the Deccan and who defeated him.
• [ ] List at least three achievements of the Gupta period in science, mathematics, or literature.
• [ ] Explain the difference between the Gupta Empire and the Mauryan Empire, including their time periods and key rulers.
• [ ] Describe the role of Xuan Zang's account as a source for understanding Harsha's reign and conditions in India.
• [ ] Explain the meaning and significance of the ashvamedha sacrifice performed by Samudragupta.
• [ ] Describe the administrative structure of villages in southern India, including the role of the Nadu as a district-level assembly.
• [ ] Compare and contrast the Sabha and the Ur in terms of membership and function.
• [ ] Explain how land grants created local power centres and affected the relationship between the king and the peasantry.
• [ ] Describe the achievements of Chandragupta II and explain why his reign is considered one of the high points of the Gupta era.
• [ ] Identify at least two literary sources and two archaeological sources for the history of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods.
• [ ] Explain the concept of brahmadeya and how it differed from other types of land grants.
• [ ] Discuss the significance of the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II and what it tells us about the relationship between Harsha and the Chalukyas.
• [ ] Summarise the economic and social changes that occurred as a result of the land grant system in ancient India.
• [ ] Explain why the Gupta period is considered a turning point in Indian political history, with reference to the rise of regional powers.

Additional Important Questions for Exam Preparation

Q1: What was the significance of the ashvamedha sacrifice performed by Samudragupta?

The ashvamedha, or horse sacrifice, was one of the most important Vedic rituals in ancient India. In this ceremony, a royal horse was allowed to roam freely across territories for a period of one year, accompanied by the king's warriors. Any ruler who stopped the horse had to either fight the king's army or accept his authority. If the horse returned unchallenged, the king performed a grand sacrifice symbolising his status as a chakravartin — a universal or paramount ruler. Samudragupta's performance of the ashvamedha, as recorded in the Allahabad pillar Prashasti, was a powerful political statement. It declared that no other king had successfully challenged his authority and that his dominion was recognised across the subcontinent. The sacrifice was not just a religious ritual; it was a public demonstration of military supremacy and political legitimacy. By performing it, Samudragupta reinforced his claim to be the most powerful ruler of his time. The ashvamedha also had symbolic importance — it connected the king to the Vedic tradition and reinforced the idea that the ruler derived his authority from divine sanction as well as military strength.

Q2: How did the administrative system of the Gupta period differ from that of the Mauryan period?

The Mauryan Empire, particularly under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka, had a highly centralised administrative system. The emperor exercised direct control over a vast territory through a network of officials, spies, and provincial governors called mahamatras. Revenue was collected centrally, and the emperor maintained a large standing army and an elaborate bureaucracy as described in the Arthashastra. The Gupta administrative system, by contrast, was more decentralised. While the Gupta kings maintained central authority, they relied increasingly on local assemblies — the Sabha, Ur, and Nagaram — for day-to-day governance. The practice of giving land grants to brahmins and officials further reduced the king's direct administrative reach, as grant holders assumed many functions of governance over their territories. The samanta system, in which subordinate rulers provided military support in exchange for autonomy, was another key difference from the Mauryan model. Under the Mauryas, conquered territories were directly administered; under the Guptas, they were often governed through samantas who owed allegiance but maintained considerable independence. These differences reflect the shift from a tightly controlled empire to a more loosely structured political order in which local and regional power holders played an increasingly important role.

Q3: Why do historians consider copper plate inscriptions important sources for this period?

Copper plate inscriptions are among the most valuable historical sources for the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. These inscriptions were typically records of land grants, issued by kings to brahmins, religious institutions, and officials. They were etched onto copper plates, which were durable and resistant to decay, allowing them to survive for centuries. Each copper plate inscription usually begins with an invocation to a deity, followed by a genealogy of the king who issued the grant, a description of the village or land being granted, the conditions of the grant, and the names of the officials who witnessed the transaction. Historians value these inscriptions for several reasons. First, they provide precise dates and names of rulers, which help establish chronologies. Second, they reveal the extent of a king's territory by naming the villages and districts under his control. Third, they document the system of land grants and the privileges conferred on grant holders, shedding light on economic and administrative practices. Fourth, they record the titles assumed by kings, their family lineages, and the religious traditions they patronised, offering insights into political ideology and cultural life. By studying copper plate inscriptions alongside other sources such as Prashastis, coins, and travellers' accounts, historians can construct a more complete and balanced picture of the period.

Q4: What role did Nalanda University play during the Gupta period?

Nalanda University, located in present-day Bihar, emerged as one of the most celebrated centres of learning during the Gupta period and continued to flourish for several centuries. Founded with the patronage of Gupta kings, Nalanda attracted scholars and students from across India as well as from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. The university offered instruction in a wide range of subjects including Buddhist philosophy, Hindu scriptures, logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. Its library was said to be one of the most extensive in the ancient world. The Chinese traveller Xuan Zang, who visited Nalanda in the 7th century, left a detailed account of the monastery-university, describing its grand buildings, its thousands of students, and the rigour of its academic programme. Admission to Nalanda was highly competitive — only a fraction of applicants were accepted after a rigorous entrance examination. The university played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Indian knowledge to other parts of Asia. Buddhist monks trained at Nalanda carried Indian philosophical traditions to China and Tibet, while mathematical and astronomical ideas developed at Nalanda influenced scholars across the region. The university stands as a testament to the Gupta period's commitment to learning and intellectual exchange.

Q5: How did trade and commerce develop during the Gupta period?

Trade and commerce flourished during the Gupta period, contributing significantly to the prosperity that earned this era the label of a golden age. The Gupta Empire's political stability and efficient administration created a favourable environment for both internal and external trade. Internally, the network of roads and waterways facilitated the movement of goods across the empire. Agricultural products, textiles, metalwork, and handicrafts were traded extensively within India. Towns and cities grew as centres of commerce, and the Nagaram assemblies of merchants played an important role in regulating trade. Externally, India maintained active trade relations with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, China, and the Arabian world. Indian exports included cotton textiles, silk, spices, ivory, and precious stones, while imports consisted of gold, silver, wine, and other luxury goods. The discovery of large numbers of Roman coins in India attests to the volume of trade with the Roman world. The Guptas issued their own gold coins called dinars, which were widely used in commercial transactions and reflected the economic strength of the empire. Ports on both the western and eastern coasts of India bustled with maritime activity. The growth of trade also encouraged the development of guilds (shrenis), which were associations of merchants and artisans that regulated business practices, provided training, and acted as banks by advancing loans. This vibrant commercial life was an essential part of the Gupta golden age.