NCERT Solutions for Class 6 Social Science History Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities | KalviGavani

Archaeologists have found strong evidence that the Harappans carefully planned their cities. The most important clues are:

• Grid layout: The streets in Harappan cities cut across one another at right angles, forming a grid pattern. This kind of systematic layout cannot happen by accident — it requires deliberate planning.
• Standardized bricks: The Harappans used baked bricks of a uniform ratio (4:2:1 for length, width, and height) throughout their cities. Using the same size of bricks across all buildings shows that there was a central authority planning and regulating construction.
• Drainage system: The covered drains ran along the streets, and every house had drains that connected to the street drains. This level of coordinated infrastructure requires advance planning.
• Division of the city: The separation of the citadel (raised western part) from the lower town shows intentional city zoning — important buildings were placed on higher ground, and residential areas were separately laid out.

These features together prove that the Harappans designed their cities before building them, rather than allowing them to grow in a haphazard manner.

The Harappans built the citadel — the raised western part of the city — for several important reasons:

• Protection and prominence: By building important structures on a raised mound, the Harappans made them stand out visually and also kept them safer from floods, since the Indus River and its tributaries could overflow during the monsoon season.
• Housing public buildings: The citadel contained the most important structures of the city — the Great Bath, granaries, and possibly assembly halls or administrative buildings. Separating these from the residential lower town shows that governance and religion were given a special, elevated place in Harappan society.
• Symbol of authority: The raised citadel would have been visible from all parts of the city, serving as a constant reminder of the authority that governed the city — whether that was a political ruler, a priestly class, or a council.

In short, the citadel combined practical protection with social and political significance.

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is one of the most famous structures of the Harappan civilization. While we cannot be completely certain about its exact purpose, archaeologists have suggested several possibilities:

• Ritual bathing: The most widely accepted theory is that the Great Bath was used for religious or ceremonial bathing. Water has sacred significance in many South Asian traditions, and a special structure of this scale would have been reserved for important rituals rather than everyday use.
• Royal bathing: It may have been a private bathing area for the ruling class or priests who lived in the citadel area.
• Community gathering: The large size of the tank and the surrounding rooms suggest it could have been a gathering place for community events or festivals.

The Great Bath was lined with baked bricks and sealed with bitumen (a natural tar) to prevent water from seeping through, showing the Harappans' advanced engineering skills. Steps led down into the tank on two sides, and there were rooms around it that may have been used for changing clothes or storing ritual items.

The Harappan seals served multiple important purposes:

• Marking ownership: Traders and merchants pressed seals onto goods or packages to indicate who owned them or who was sending them. This is similar to how we use signatures or stamps today.
• Authentication and security: A seal impression on a tied bundle showed whether the package had been opened during transit — if the seal was broken, the recipient would know the goods had been tampered with.
• Trade identification: Seals found in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) show that Harappan traders used them to identify their goods in foreign markets. The animal motifs and script on the seals helped foreign buyers recognize products from the Indus region.
• Administrative use: Some scholars believe that seals may have been used by city officials to authorize transactions, record taxes, or manage the distribution of goods from granaries.

The seals typically featured an animal engraving (bull, elephant, tiger, or the famous "unicorn"), a line of Harappan script (which remains undeciphered), and a small boss (projection) on the back for gripping.

Lothal, located in present-day Gujarat, is significant for several reasons:

• Dockyard: Lothal had a large rectangular basin that archaeologists believe was a dockyard for ships. This would make it one of the earliest known docks in the world, suggesting that the Harappans engaged in sea-borne trade.
• Trade center: Lothal was likely an important trading port. Goods from the Harappan hinterland were brought here and shipped to Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, and other distant regions.
• Bead-making factory: Archaeologists found a bead-making workshop at Lothal, showing that it was a centre for craft production. Beads made from steatite, carnelian, and other materials were produced here for local use and for export.
• Warehouse: A large warehouse was found near the dockyard, which would have been used to store goods before they were loaded onto ships or distributed to other cities.

Lothal shows that the Harappan civilization was not limited to the Indus valley — it had outposts and trading centres along the coast that connected it to the wider world.

Archaeologists have identified several pieces of evidence that confirm the Harappans planned their cities carefully:

1. Grid pattern of streets: The roads and streets in Harappan cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were laid out in a grid, cutting across each other at right angles (north-south and east-west directions). A natural, unplanned settlement grows organically with winding lanes — the regular grid is proof of deliberate planning.

2. Uniform brick size: Throughout the Harappan civilization, bricks were made in a standard ratio of 4:2:1 (length:width:height). Whether a house wall, a drain, or a city wall, the same proportions were used. This standardization across hundreds of settlements could only happen with centralized planning and regulation.

3. Planned drainage system: The drains in Harappan cities were not random. They were covered, built with precise slopes for water flow, and ran along the sides of streets. Each house had its own drains that connected to the main street drains. Manhole covers (loose bricks) were provided for cleaning. Such an organized system requires advance planning and a governing authority.

4. Division into citadel and lower town: The consistent pattern of dividing each city into a raised western citadel and a larger eastern lower town, found across multiple Harappan sites, shows that city planning followed a standard model.

5. Public buildings: The presence of large public structures — the Great Bath, granaries, assembly halls — in the citadel area indicates that space was specifically allocated for community and administrative purposes.

All these features together convince archaeologists that the Harappans had a well-organized system of urban planning — among the most advanced in the ancient world.

The Harappans built the citadel — the raised, western part of their cities — for multiple reasons:

• Practical protection: The Indus region was prone to flooding. By building the citadel on a raised mud-brick platform, the most important buildings of the city were protected from floodwaters. The lower town, where people lived, was at a lower elevation but was also built on platforms in many sites.
• Separation of public and private spaces: The citadel housed public and communal structures — the Great Bath, granaries, and possibly administrative buildings. Separating these from the residential lower town allowed for better management and security of these important buildings.
• Symbol of authority: In many ancient civilizations, raising important buildings above the rest of the city was a way of expressing power and authority. The citadel, visible from every part of the city, would have served as a visual reminder of the social and political order.
• Fortification: The citadel was often surrounded by thick walls, which could have served defensive purposes in times of conflict.

The citadel was not just a practical architectural feature — it reflected the social hierarchy and organized governance of Harappan society.

The Harappans used a wide range of materials to make various objects:

What this tells us about their skills:

• Knowledge of materials: The Harappans knew how to identify, extract, and process a wide variety of raw materials. They understood the properties of different stones, metals, and clays.
• Metalworking: They could smelt copper, mix it with tin to make bronze, and forge it into tools, weapons, and ornaments.
• Stone cutting and carving: The fine engravings on seals and beads show highly skilled stone workers who could carve minute details on small objects.
• Bead-making: The Harappans developed sophisticated bead-making techniques, including grinding, polishing, drilling tiny holes in hard stones, and firing steatite to harden it.
• Pottery: They produced both functional and decorative pottery using the potter's wheel, showing mastery over clay processing, shaping, and firing.
• Weaving: The discovery of cotton fragments and spindle whorls shows they could spin thread and weave cloth.

The variety and quality of materials used demonstrate that the Harappans were highly skilled craftsmen with advanced knowledge of metallurgy, lapidary work, ceramics, and textile production.

Mohenjo-daro, located in present-day Sindh province of Pakistan, was one of the largest and most important cities of the Harappan civilization. Its special features include:

1. The Great Bath: A large rectangular tank (approximately 12 metres long, 7 metres wide, and 2.4 metres deep) built in the citadel area. It was lined with baked bricks and sealed with bitumen to make it watertight. Steps led down into the tank on two sides, and rooms surrounded it, possibly for changing or storing ritual items.

2. Planned streets: The streets of Mohenjo-daro were laid out in a grid pattern, running north-south and east-west. The main streets were wide enough for carts to pass, and smaller lanes branched off them.

3. Covered drainage system: Every house had drains that connected to street drains, which were covered with bricks and had inspection holes for cleaning. This is one of the most advanced ancient drainage systems ever discovered.

4. Multi-storeyed houses: Many houses in Mohenjo-daro had two or more storeys. They were built around a central courtyard, with rooms arranged around it. The houses had private wells and bathrooms.

5. Granaries: Large structures believed to be granaries were found in Mohenjo-daro, indicating organized food storage and distribution.

6. A large building (assembly hall): A large structure in the citadel area may have been used as an assembly hall or palace, suggesting some form of centralized governance.

7. The "Great Granary": A massive building that some archaeologists interpret as a granary, though its exact function is debated. It had a series of brick platforms that may have been used for threshing grain or as air ducts to prevent spoilage.

8. The "Dancing Girl": A famous bronze statuette of a young girl, about 10.5 cm tall, found at Mohenjo-daro. It shows advanced metal-casting skills (using the lost-wax technique) and gives us a glimpse of Harappan art and personal adornment.

9. The "Priest-King": A stone bust of a man with a fillet (headband), armband, and semicircular eyes, believed by some to depict a ruler or priest. It suggests the existence of an organized ruling class.

These features show that Mohenjo-daro was a well-planned, prosperous city with advanced engineering, art, and governance.

The decline of the Harappan civilization is one of the great mysteries of ancient history. Archaeologists have proposed several possible reasons, and it is likely that a combination of factors was responsible:

1. Environmental changes: Some scholars believe that the climate became drier over time, causing rivers to dry up or change course. The Ghaggar-Hakra river (possibly the ancient Saraswati) is believed to have dried up, forcing people to abandon cities along its banks.

2. Floods: The Indus River and its tributaries were prone to flooding. Repeated or severe floods could have destroyed crops, damaged buildings, and made cities uninhabitable. Silt deposits found at some sites support this theory.

3. Deforestation and overgrazing: The Harappans needed large quantities of wood for baking bricks, constructing buildings, and fuel. Over time, excessive deforestation may have led to soil erosion, reduced rainfall, and a decline in agricultural productivity.

4. Decline in trade: The Harappans traded extensively with Mesopotamia and other regions. When these trading partners declined or trade routes shifted, the Harappan economy may have suffered, leading to urban decline.

5. River shifts: Rivers in the Indus region were known to change course. A shift in a river's path could have left a city without water, forcing its inhabitants to move.

6. Epidemic or disease: Some scholars have suggested that a widespread disease could have devastated the population, though there is little direct archaeological evidence for this.

It is important to note that the Harappan civilization did not vanish overnight. The decline was gradual — cities were slowly abandoned, and people moved to smaller villages. The "Late Harappan" phase shows a cultural continuation, even though urban features like planned streets and drainage systems disappeared.

The Harappan seals performed several important functions in the economic and administrative life of the civilization:

1. Identification of ownership: Traders pressed their personal seals onto goods, bundles, or clay tags attached to packages. This identified the owner or sender of the goods, similar to how we use signatures today.

2. Authentication and security: When a package was tied and sealed, any break in the seal would indicate tampering. This ensured the security of goods during transport.

3. Facilitating trade: Seals found at Mesopotamian sites (like Ur and Lagash) prove that Harappan merchants used seals to identify their goods in foreign markets. The animal motifs and script on the seals served as a brand identity for Harappan products.

4. Administrative use: Some scholars believe that city officials used seals to authorize transactions, manage storage of goods in granaries, or record tax collections. The standardized weight system found alongside seals supports the idea that seals were part of an administrative system.

5. Social status: Owning a seal may have been a marker of social status. Not everyone had a seal — they were likely used by merchants, administrators, and wealthy individuals who had goods to trade or authority to exercise.

6. Amulets or charms: Some seals may have been worn as amulets or charms, as suggested by the hole on the back (the boss) through which a string could be passed. The animal engravings may have had religious or protective significance.

The discovery of over 2,000 seals at various Harappan sites shows just how central they were to the civilization's economic and administrative systems.

The Great Bath is one of the most remarkable structures of the Harappan civilization and a testament to their engineering skills. Here is a detailed description:

Location and setting: The Great Bath was located in the citadel area of Mohenjo-daro, on a raised mud-brick platform. It was part of a larger building complex that included rooms and corridors around the tank.

Dimensions: The tank measured approximately 12 metres long, 7 metres wide, and 2.4 metres deep — large enough for several people to bathe in at the same time.

Construction: The tank was built with finely fitted baked bricks. The floor and walls were sealed with a layer of bitumen (natural tar) on the outside to make the tank completely watertight. This prevented water from seeping into the surrounding ground.

Access: Two staircases led down into the tank from the north and south sides. Each staircase had steps with a comfortable rise, making it easy to enter and exit the water.

Surrounding rooms: A colonnaded corridor or veranda ran along the edges of the tank. Several small rooms surrounded the bath, which may have been used as changing rooms, storage areas for ritual items, or quarters for priests. One room had a well that supplied water to the tank.

Drainage: A large drain in one corner of the tank was used to empty the water when needed, showing that the Harappans thought about maintenance and hygiene.

Significance: The Great Bath is the earliest known public water tank in the world. Its construction quality — watertight sealing, proper drainage, easy access — demonstrates the Harappans' advanced knowledge of engineering and water management. Most archaeologists believe it was used for ritual or ceremonial bathing, given its location in the citadel and the care taken in its construction.

The Harappan seals provide valuable evidence about the extensive trade networks of the Harappan civilization:

1. Trade with Mesopotamia: Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Ur, Lagash, and Kish. Mesopotamian texts refer to a land called "Meluhha," which most scholars identify as the Harappan region. These texts mention that Meluhha traded goods like carnelian beads, ivory, copper, and wood. The seals served as proof of origin and ownership for these traded goods.

2. Trade with distant regions: Seals have also been found at sites in the Persian Gulf (like Bahrain), suggesting that the Harappans had maritime trade routes connecting them to the Arabian Peninsula and beyond.

3. Types of goods traded: The animal motifs on the seals — bulls, elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses — represent the fauna of the Indus region, suggesting that these were identifying markers for products originating from that area. The seals themselves were sometimes trade goods, valued as exotic items.

4. Standardization of trade: The presence of standardized weights and measures alongside seals at various Harappan sites shows that trade was organized and regulated. Merchants used uniform weights to ensure fair transactions, and seals guaranteed authenticity.

5. Sea trade via Lothal: The dockyard at Lothal and the discovery of seals at coastal sites indicate that the Harappans engaged in sea-borne trade. Seals would have been essential for identifying goods loaded onto ships.

6. Local trade: Within the Harappan civilization itself, seals were used to identify goods being transported between cities. A seal from Harappa found in Mohenjo-daro (or vice versa) would indicate that goods were being traded between these major urban centres.

In summary, the seals tell us that the Harappans had a sophisticated and far-reaching trade network — from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea, and from the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia — and that they used seals as a tool for authentication, ownership, and brand identity in this network.

(a) Grid pattern of streets ✓\ (b) Covered drainage system\ (c) Random, winding lanes\ (d) Standardized brick sizes

(a) Harappa\ (b) Lothal\ (c) Mohenjo-daro ✓\ (d) Dholavira

(a) Iron\ (b) Steatite ✓\ (c) Glass\ (d) Marble

(a) Northern side\ (b) Southern side\ (c) Eastern side\ (d) Western side ✓

(a) Great Bath\ (b) Dockyard ✓\ (c) Palace\ (d) Temple

(a) Elephant\ (b) Tiger\ (c) Bull ✓\ (d) Horse

(a) Deciphered completely\ (b) Partially deciphered\ (c) Not deciphered at all ✓\ (d) Translated into Sanskrit

(a) Invasion by foreign armies only\ (b) A single devastating earthquake\ (c) Environmental changes including river shifts and deforestation ✓\ (d) A sudden volcanic eruption

(a) 1:2:4\ (b) 4:2:1 ✓\ (c) 3:2:1\ (d) 2:1:1

(a) India\ (b) Pakistan\ (c) Afghanistan\ (d) Myanmar ✓