Rise of Nationalism in India Exercise Solutions | KalviGavani

The main factors were: 1. Western education — created an English-educated class aware of liberal ideas 2. English language — became a medium of communication across linguistic barriers 3. Press and literature — newspapers spread nationalist ideas and critiques 4. Transport and communication — railways, post, and telegraph connected India 5. Socio-religious reform movements — attacked social evils and revived pride in Indian culture 6. Colonial economic exploitation — drain of wealth, ruin of artisans, famines, and high taxes 7. Racial discrimination — Ilbert Bill controversy and racial arrogance united Indians

Allan Octavian Hume was a retired British civil servant who organised the first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. He believed that Indian grievances needed a constitutional outlet to prevent revolutionary outbreaks. He consulted Indian leaders across the country and convened the first session at Bombay. Though a British official, his role was that of organiser, not president — W.C. Bonnerjee presided.

Propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji, the Drain of Wealth theory argued that British rule was systematically transferring India's wealth to Britain through: (a) excessive taxation, (b) salaries and pensions of British officials paid from Indian revenues, (c) profits of British businesses, and (d) home charges (payments to Britain). Naoroji quantified this drain in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, showing that India was being impoverished to enrich Britain.

1. Indianisation of government services (more Indians in higher posts) 2. Expansion of legislative councils with more elected Indian members 3. Reduction of military expenditure 4. Reduction of land revenue and other taxes 5. Right to hold the ICS examination in India 6. Freedom of speech and press 7. Separation of judicial and executive functions 8. Inquiry into India's economic condition

The Moderates were criticised for their policy of "political mendicancy" — they relied on petitions, memorials, and speeches (the "3 Ps") which seemed like begging before the British. Extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak argued that constitutional methods alone could not secure self-government and that more assertive methods like boycott and passive resistance were needed. The Moderates' achievements were also seen as too modest — the Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a limited concession.

Sir Pherozeshah Mehta (1845–1915), known as the "Lion of Bombay," was a prominent Moderate leader. He was a brilliant lawyer and legislator who served as president of the INC in 1890. He drafted many resolutions for the Congress and was instrumental in shaping its early constitutional approach. He founded the Bombay Presidency Association (1885) and was a key figure in the early years of the nationalist movement. However, he opposed the Extremist faction and sided with the Moderates during the Surat Split of 1907.

The rise of Indian nationalism was the result of multiple interconnected factors that created a shared consciousness of Indian identity and opposition to colonial rule:

1. Western Education and English Language: The British introduced English education (Macaulay's Minute, 1835; Woods Dispatch, 1854), creating a class of English-educated Indians who could read liberal thinkers like Bentham, Mill, and Rousseau. They understood concepts of democracy, liberty, and rights, and began demanding these for India. English also became a lingua franca connecting Indians across linguistic regions.

2. Role of the Press: Newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika (Bengal), The Hindu (Madras), Kesari (Maharashtra), and Tribune (Punjab) spread nationalist ideas, reported British atrocities, and created public opinion. Vernacular newspapers reached the masses. The Vernacular Press Act (1878) and subsequent restrictions only strengthened press resistance.

3. Transport and Communication: Railways (introduced from 1853), the telegraph, and the postal system connected distant parts of India. This enabled political leaders to travel, communicate, and coordinate activities across the country — turning local grievances into a national movement.

4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements: Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj, 1828), Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj, 1875), and others attacked caste, sati, child marriage, and superstition. By reviving India's cultural heritage and attacking social evils, they instilled pride and a sense of national identity.

5. Colonial Economic Exploitation: The drain of wealth (Naoroji's theory), ruin of Indian artisans through factory imports, heavy land revenue, famines, and destruction of indigenous industries created widespread economic suffering that was identified as a consequence of foreign rule.

6. Racial Discrimination: The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883) — where British opposition to allowing Indian judges to try Europeans revealed deep racial prejudice — united Indians across classes in opposition to colonial racism.

7. Impact of International Events: The unification of Italy and Germany, the French Revolution's ideals of liberty and equality, and the Irish Home Rule movement inspired Indian nationalists.

Birth of the INC: The Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. It was organised by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant who believed that Indian discontent needed a constitutional outlet. The first session was presided over by W.C. Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates from across India.

Precursors to the INC: Before 1885, several organisations had laid the groundwork:

• The Landholders' Society (1837) in Bengal
• The Bengal British India Society (1843)
• The British Indian Association (1851) in Bengal
• The Bombay Association (1852)
• Surendranath Banerjee's Indian Association (1876) in Calcutta — the most important precursor
• The Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884)
• The Bombay Presidency Association (1885)

Aims of the Early INC: 1. To promote friendship and cooperation among educated Indians across provinces 2. To formulate popular demands and present them before the government 3. To train and organise public opinion in the country 4. To create a national political platform

Moderate Phase (1885–1905): The early INC was dominated by Moderate leaders who believed in constitutional methods:

• Dadabhai Naoroji — propounded the Drain of Wealth theory; president in 1886, 1893, and 1906
• Pherozeshah Mehta — "Lion of Bombay"; president in 1890
• W.C. Bonnerjee — first president (1885)
• Surendranath Banerjee — leader in Bengal
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale — president in 1905; mentor to Gandhi

The Moderates demanded greater Indian representation, reduction of expenditure, and Indianisation of services — all through petitions, speeches, and memorials. Their main achievement was the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which was a modest reform.

The Moderate leaders (1885–1905) made significant contributions despite their limited methods:

Contributions: 1. Created national political awareness: The INC under the Moderates was the first all-India political organisation, creating a national platform that transcended regional, linguistic, and religious barriers. 2. Exposed the Drain of Wealth: Dadabhai Naoroji's economic analysis demonstrated that British rule was impoverishing India, providing the intellectual foundation for anti-colonial arguments. 3. Secured the Indian Councils Act of 1892: Though modest, this was the first legislative concession won through constitutional agitation — it allowed some non-official members in legislative councils. 4. Trained Indians in political work: The Moderates established the culture of political debate, resolution-making, and organising annual sessions — building institutional capacity. 5. Created public opinion: Through speeches, writings, and newspapers, the Moderates educated Indians about their rights and the nature of colonial exploitation. 6. Dadabhai Naoroji's parliamentary work: As the first Indian in the British Parliament (1892), Naoroji raised Indian issues at the highest level.

Limitations: 1. Their methods (petitions, prayers) were too mild — called "political mendicancy." 2. They failed to mobilise the masses — the movement remained limited to the urban educated class. 3. Their achievements were modest — the 1892 Act was a token reform. 4. They could not prevent the partition of Bengal (1905), which exposed the limitations of their approach.

Comparison: Moderates vs. Extremists

The Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917) systematically argued that British rule was causing a "drain of wealth" from India to Britain. In his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), he quantified this drain and identified its sources:

1. Home charges: Salaries, pensions, and remittances of British officials paid from Indian revenues. 2. Excessive taxation: Land revenue and other taxes far exceeding what was spent on India's welfare. 3. Unfair trade: India exported raw materials cheaply and imported British manufactured goods at high prices — a classic colonial economic relationship. 4. Profits of British businesses: Profits earned by British companies in India were repatriated to Britain. 5. Interest on debt: India paid interest on debts incurred for British wars and administration.

Significance: 1. Provided intellectual foundation: The theory gave nationalists an economic argument against colonial rule — not just a political or emotional one. 2. Created a unifying grievance: All sections of Indian society — peasants, artisans, zamindars, and the educated class — suffered from economic exploitation, creating a shared basis for nationalism. 3. Influenced later leaders: Both the Extremists and Gandhi drew upon Naoroji's economic critique. 4. International recognition: Naoroji presented his findings in the British Parliament, making the colonial exploitation of India an internationally discussed issue. 5. Legitimised the demand for self-government: If Britain was impoverishing India, then Indians had a right — and a necessity — to govern themselves.

Socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century created the cultural and intellectual conditions for nationalism:

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj (1828): Abolished sati (1829), opposed idolatry and caste, promoted women's education, and advocated rationalism. Created a sense that India could reform itself from within.

2. Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj (1875): Proclaimed "Back to the Vedas" — asserting the superiority of ancient Indian culture. Opposed caste and child marriage. The Arya Samaj instilled pride in India's Vedic heritage, countering the colonial narrative of Indian inferiority.

3. Prarthana Samaj (1867): Worked for social reform in western India — opposed caste, promoted women's education and widow remarriage.

4. Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Swami Vivekananda's message of strength, self-reliance, and service to humanity inspired nationalist youth. His speech at the Parliament of Religions (1893, Chicago) raised India's international prestige.

5. Theosophical Society: Annie Besant's work in India connected spiritual revival with nationalist politics.

How Reform Movements Fostered Nationalism:

• They attacked social evils (caste, sati, child marriage) and created a sense that Indians could reform their own society.
• They revived pride in India's ancient heritage — countering the colonial claim that Indians were backward and needed British rule.
• They created organisations and leaders who later participated in politics.
• They promoted education, especially women's education, expanding the base of politically aware citizens.
• They created a cultural unity by showing that reform was possible across religious and regional lines.