Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation Exercise Solutions | KalviGavani

The Champaran Satyagraha (1917) was Gandhi's first Satyagraha in India. The indigo farmers of Champaran (Bihar) were forced under the tinkathia system to grow indigo on 3/20 of their land and sell it at unfairly low prices to British planters. When a farmer named Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi to Champaran, Gandhi investigated the conditions, organised the farmers, and launched Satyagraha. The government appointed a commission of inquiry, which recommended the abolition of the tinkathia system. The Champaran Agrarian Act (1917) was passed, freeing the farmers from the oppressive system.

The Rowlatt Act (officially the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919) gave the British government the power to: 1. Arrest and detain people without trial for up to two years 2. Suppress political activities and meetings 3. Impose press restrictions

Gandhi called it the "Black Act" and organised the Rowlatt Satyagraha — a nationwide hartal on 6 April 1919. Shops closed, people protested, and the British responded with brutal repression, including firing on crowds and arrests. The protests in Amritsar led directly to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on 13 April 1919.

On 13 April 1919 (the day of the Baisakhi festival), a large crowd of men, women, and children gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar for a peaceful meeting — unaware that General Dyer had imposed martial law and banned gatherings. General Dyer marched his troops to the narrow entrance of the garden and, without any warning, ordered his soldiers to fire on the unarmed crowd. The firing continued for about 10 minutes, killing over 1,000 people and wounding thousands more. Dyer later stated that his intention was to "produce a moral effect" — to create terror. The massacre shocked the nation and turned loyal Indians into坚定的 freedom fighters.

After World War I, the British imposed harsh terms on Turkey, which was the seat of the Khalifa (the spiritual head of Sunni Islam). Indian Muslims were deeply concerned about the treatment of the Khalifa and the future of Islamic holy places. The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924) was launched by the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali) to protest these terms and demand the protection of the Khalifa's authority. Gandhi supported the movement to achieve Hindu-Muslim unity, and the Khilafat Committee and the INC jointly launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) had two parts — negative (boycott) and positive (constructive):

Negative (Boycott): 1. Surrender of titles and honorary positions 2. Boycott of government schools, colleges, and courts 3. Boycott of legislative councils 4. Boycott of foreign goods (especially British cloth) 5. Refusal to serve in the police and army

Positive (Constructive): 1. Promotion of Swadeshi (use Indian-made goods) 2. Promotion of Khadi (handspun cloth) 3. Establishment of national schools and colleges 4. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity 5. Removal of untouchability

On 5 February 1922, a violent incident occurred at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district, UP. A mob of protesters, provoked by police firing, set fire to the local police station, killing 22 policemen inside. Gandhi was deeply disturbed by this violence, which contradicted his principle of non-violence (Ahimsa). He immediately withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement on 12 February 1922, arguing that the people were not ready for non-violent Satyagraha. Many leaders, including Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das, were unhappy with the withdrawal.

Gandhi conducted three major Satyagrahas before launching the Non-Cooperation Movement:

Causes: 1. Rowlatt Act (March 1919): The draconian act that allowed arrest without trial provoked nationwide anger. 2. Rowlatt Satyagraha (6 April 1919): A nationwide hartal turned violent in some places. In Amritsar, two nationalist leaders (Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal) were arrested on 10 April. 3. Martial law: Brigadier-General Dyer imposed martial law in Amritsar on 11 April 1919 and banned all public gatherings.

Course of Events:

• On 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi day), a large crowd of men, women, and children gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Many were unaware of the ban on gatherings; others had come for the annual Baisakhi fair.
• General Dyer marched his troops (about 50 soldiers with rifles) to the narrow entrance of the Bagh.
• Without any warning to disperse, Dyer ordered his soldiers to fire on the unarmed crowd.
• The firing continued for about 10 minutes. The Bagh had only one narrow exit, and many people were trampled in the panic.
• Over 1,000 people were killed and thousands wounded (the official British figure was 379 dead; the Indian National Congress estimate was over 1,000).
• Dyer later stated he wanted to "produce a moral effect" throughout Punjab.

Aftermath: 1. The Hunter Commission was appointed to investigate, but it was a whitewash — Dyer was only relieved of his command. 2. The British House of Lords praised Dyer; a fund was raised for him in Britain. 3. Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood in protest. 4. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from the Viceroy's Executive Council. 5. The massacre turned loyal Indians into committed freedom fighters and deepened the divide between Indians and the British. 6. It gave Gandhi a national cause and strengthened the demand for self-government.

Significance: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a turning point in the freedom struggle. It exposed the brutality of British rule, destroyed the faith of moderate Indians in British justice, and paved the way for the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Causes: 1. Rowlatt Act (1919): Draconian powers of arrest without trial. 2. Jallianwala Bagh massacre (April 1919): Brutal killing of over 1,000 unarmed Indians. 3. Khilafat issue (1919): Harsh treatment of Turkey after WWI angered Indian Muslims. 4. Failure of British reforms: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) were seen as inadequate. 5. Economic hardship: High taxes, inflation, and famine after World War I. 6. Gandhi's leadership: Gandhi now had a national profile and could mobilise the masses.

Course of the Movement:

1. Boycott phase (1920–1921): Surrender of titles, boycott of schools, colleges, courts, councils, and foreign goods. Thousands of students left government schools; lawyers gave up practice; Khadi and Swadeshi were promoted. 2. Constructive phase (1921): Establishment of national schools and colleges (Jamia Millia Islamia, Kashi Vidyapeeth), promotion of Khadi and village industries, Hindu-Muslim unity rallies, and anti-untouchability campaigns.

• Calcutta Session (September 1920): Gandhi moved the resolution for Non-Cooperation; it was supported by the Khilafat leaders.
• Nagpur Session (December 1920): The INC formally endorsed the movement and adopted the goal of Swaraj.
• Phases of the movement:
• Mass participation: For the first time, peasants, workers, women, and students participated in large numbers. Women picketed liquor shops and foreign cloth stores.
• Government response: Arrests of leaders, press censorship, and violence against protesters.

Withdrawal (February 1922):

• On 5 February 1922, at Chauri Chaura (Gorakhpur, UP), a mob of protesters set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen.
• Gandhi was deeply disturbed by this violence, which violated his principle of Ahimsa (non-violence).
• He immediately withdrew the movement on 12 February 1922, arguing that the people were not yet ready for non-violent Satyagraha.
• Many leaders (Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das) were unhappy with the withdrawal.

Significance: 1. First all-India mass movement under Gandhi's leadership 2. Demonstrated the power of non-violent mass mobilisation 3. Brought peasants, workers, women, and students into the national movement 4. Weakened British economic interests through boycott of foreign goods 5. Created national institutions (schools, colleges) 6. Strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity (through the Khilafat alliance)

Background: After World War I, the Allies imposed harsh terms on Turkey through the Treaty of Sevres (1920). The Khalifa (Sultan of Turkey) was the spiritual head of Sunni Islam, and Indian Muslims were outraged by the threat to his authority and to Islamic holy places.

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924):

• Launched by the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali)
• Aimed to protect the Khalifa's authority and the holy places of Islam
• Held an All-India Khilafat Conference and organised protests

Gandhi's Support: Gandhi saw the Khilafat Movement as an opportunity to achieve Hindu-Muslim unity — a common cause that could unite the two communities against British rule. He argued that the Khilafat issue was not just a Muslim concern but an Indian concern.

Merger of the Two Movements:

• In June 1920, the Khilafat Committee adopted the Non-Cooperation programme at an all-party conference in Allahabad.
• At the Calcutta Congress session (September 1920), Gandhi moved the Non-Cooperation resolution, which was endorsed by Khilafat leaders.
• The Nagpur Congress (December 1920) formally adopted the Non-Cooperation programme.
• From 1920 to 1922, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements operated together, with Hindu and Muslim leaders jointly organising boycotts, strikes, and protests.

Outcome: 1. The combined movement saw unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity — joint protests, boycotts, and processions. 2. When Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement after Chauri Chaura (1922), the Khilafat Movement also lost momentum. 3. The Khilafat issue became irrelevant when Turkey itself abolished the Caliphate in March 1924 under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. 4. After the movements ended, Hindu-Muslim unity broke down, and communal politics intensified.

Gandhi's arrival transformed the Indian freedom struggle in fundamental ways:

1. Mass Mobilisation: Before Gandhi, the national movement was limited to the educated urban elite (Moderates) or small groups (revolutionaries). Gandhi brought peasants, workers, women, and students into the movement. The Non-Cooperation Movement saw participation from millions across India.

2. Method of Satyagraha: Gandhi introduced Satyagraha — truth-force or non-violent resistance — as a political method. This was distinct from Moderate petitions (too mild) and revolutionary violence (too isolated). Satyagraha combined moral force with mass participation.

3. Constructive Programme: Gandhi's movement was not just negative (boycott) but positive (constructive) — promotion of Khadi, village industries, removal of untouchability, Hindu-Muslim unity, and national education. This gave the movement a social reform dimension.

4. Hindu-Muslim Unity: Gandhi's support for the Khilafat Movement brought Hindus and Muslims together in a common struggle, at least temporarily.

5. Women's Participation: Gandhi actively encouraged women's participation — they picketed liquor shops, boycotted foreign cloth, and joined protests. This was a major change from earlier phases.

6. Shift in Goals: Under Gandhi, the INC's goal shifted from Moderate reforms to Swaraj (self-government). The Nagpur Congress (1920) adopted Swaraj as the goal.

7. Organisational Change: Gandhi reorganised the INC on a mass basis — creating village, district, and provincial committees, collecting membership fees, and making the Congress a genuine mass organisation.

• The withdrawal after Chauri Chaura disappointed many leaders
• Hindu-Muslim unity was temporary
• The movement remained largely urban; rural mobilisation was limited
• Gandhi's emphasis on Khadi and village industries was not fully shared by all Congress leaders