Climate Change — Basics
What is Climate Change?
Climate Change = Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns. Primarily caused since the 20th century by human activities — especially burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) that release greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Greenhouse Effect: Solar radiation warms Earth's surface → Earth emits infrared radiation → GHGs in atmosphere trap some of this radiation → Earth stays warm. Natural greenhouse effect is essential for life. Enhanced greenhouse effect (due to human CO₂ emissions) causes additional warming.
Key Greenhouse Gases
| Gas | Main Source | Global Warming Potential (GWP) |
|---|---|---|
| CO₂ | Fossil fuels, deforestation | 1 (baseline) |
| Methane (CH₄) | Agriculture (livestock), landfills, natural gas | 28–36× CO₂ |
| Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) | Agriculture, fertilisers | 265–298× CO₂ |
| HFCs | Refrigerants, air conditioning | Thousands × CO₂ |
| Water vapour | Natural; amplifies warming | Feedback mechanism |
CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e): Standard unit to compare different GHGs by converting to equivalent warming effect.
Current Status (IPCC AR6, 2021–2023)
- Global temperature: +1.1°C above pre-industrial (1850–1900) levels
- CO₂ concentration: ~420 ppm (parts per million) — highest in 2 million years
- Sea level rise: 20 cm since 1900; accelerating
- Arctic sea ice: Declining; Arctic warming 4× faster than global average
- 1.5°C threshold: Likely to be crossed in the early 2030s
Impacts on India
| Impact | Details |
|---|---|
| Monsoon variability | Erratic rainfall; more extreme events (floods + droughts) |
| Glacial retreat | Himalayan glaciers retreating — affects river flow; water security |
| Sea level rise | Coastal states (TN, Kerala, West Bengal) at risk; Chennai, Mumbai vulnerable |
| Heat waves | Increasing frequency and intensity; deaths rising |
| Agriculture | Yield decline in wheat/rice; shifting crop zones |
| Biodiversity | Coral bleaching (Gulf of Mannar); species migration |
International Climate Framework
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
- Adopted: Rio Earth Summit, 1992 (Rio de Janeiro)
- In force: March 21, 1994
- Members: 198 parties (near-universal membership)
- Secretariat: Bonn, Germany
- Objective: Stabilise GHG concentrations at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system
- Key principle: Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) — all countries share responsibility, but developed countries (historically high emitters) bear greater burden
- COP: Conference of Parties — annual meeting of all UNFCCC parties
Country Groupings Under UNFCCC
| Group | Countries | Obligations |
|---|---|---|
| Annex I | Developed countries + economies in transition (40 countries) | Binding emission reduction targets under Kyoto |
| Annex II | Developed countries only (24 OECD members) | Must provide financial and technology support to developing nations |
| Non-Annex I | Developing countries including India, China | No binding targets under Kyoto; voluntary commitments under Paris |
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
- Adopted: Kyoto, Japan, December 1997
- In force: February 16, 2005
- What it did: First legally binding international agreement with emission reduction targets
- Targets: Annex I countries to reduce emissions by average 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008–2012 (first commitment period)
- India's position: As a developing nation (Non-Annex I), India had NO binding targets under Kyoto
- USA: Signed but never ratified — biggest emitter outside the protocol
- Canada: Withdrew in 2011
- Doha Amendment (2012): Extended Kyoto to 2020 (second commitment period)
- Replaced by: Paris Agreement (2015) for post-2020 framework
Kyoto Mechanisms (market tools to reduce emissions):
| Mechanism | How it works |
|---|---|
| Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) | Developed countries fund emission reduction projects in developing countries → earn Carbon Credits |
| Joint Implementation (JI) | Developed country funds emission reduction project in another developed country |
| Emissions Trading | Countries with surplus credits sell to those exceeding limits ("Cap and Trade") |
Paris Agreement (2015)
- Adopted: COP21, Paris, December 12, 2015
- In force: November 4, 2016
- India ratified: October 2, 2016 (Gandhi Jayanti)
- Parties: 195 countries + EU
Core Goals: 1. Temperature goal: Limit warming to well below 2°C; pursue efforts for 1.5°C 2. Adaptation: Strengthen adaptive capacity; reduce vulnerability 3. Finance: Developed nations to provide $100 billion/year to developing nations (from 2020) — not yet fully achieved
Key Features:
- NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions): Each country sets its own targets — bottom-up approach (unlike Kyoto's top-down)
- Ratchet mechanism: Countries must update NDCs every 5 years, progressively more ambitious
- Global Stocktake: Every 5 years, assess collective progress (first stocktake: COP28, 2023)
- Loss and Damage: Funding for climate impacts that cannot be adapted to — major victory for developing nations at COP27 (2022)
Paris vs Kyoto:
| Feature | Kyoto (1997) | Paris (2015) |
|---|---|---|
| Targets | Binding for Annex I only | Voluntary NDCs for all |
| Approach | Top-down (imposed targets) | Bottom-up (self-determined) |
| USA | Never ratified | Rejoined under Biden (2021) |
| Coverage | 37 countries bound | Universal (195 parties) |
| India | No binding target | Has NDC commitments |
India's Climate Commitments
India's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution)
India submitted updated NDC in 2022:
| Commitment | Target | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Reduce GDP emission intensity | 45% below 2005 levels by 2030 | On track (37% achieved by 2016) |
| Non-fossil electricity capacity | 50% of installed capacity by 2030 | ~43% in 2024 |
| Additional carbon sink | 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂e via forests by 2030 | In progress |
| Net Zero | 2070 | Long-term target (announced COP26) |
India is among the few G20 nations "on track" with Paris targets (Climate Action Tracker — "Highly Insufficient" for developed nations; India rated "Fairly Insufficient" — better than most).
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
Launched by PM Manmohan Singh in 2008. 8 National Missions:
| Mission | Focus |
|---|---|
| National Solar Mission (Jawaharlal Nehru) | 100 GW solar by 2022 (achieved); 500 GW renewables by 2030 |
| National Enhanced Energy Efficiency | Industrial energy efficiency; Perform Achieve Trade (PAT) scheme |
| National Sustainable Habitat | Green buildings; urban planning |
| National Water Mission | 20% improvement in water use efficiency |
| Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystems | Glaciers, biodiversity, forests |
| Green India Mission | 5 million hectares additional forest cover |
| Sustainable Agriculture | Climate-resilient agriculture |
| Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change | Research and development |
International Solar Alliance (ISA)
- Founded: COP21 (Paris, 2015) — initiative of India and France
- Headquarters: Gurugram, India
- Members: 120 countries (tropics — "Sunshine Countries")
- Goal: Mobilise $1 trillion investment in solar energy by 2030
- Significance: India's flagship climate diplomacy initiative
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
- Founded: 2019, New York UN Climate Summit — India's initiative
- Headquarters: New Delhi
- Goal: Promote disaster and climate-resilient infrastructure globally
COP Summits — Key Milestones
| COP | Year | City | Key Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| COP1 | 1995 | Berlin | Berlin Mandate — agreed to negotiate binding targets |
| COP3 | 1997 | Kyoto | Kyoto Protocol adopted |
| COP13 | 2007 | Bali | Bali Action Plan — roadmap for post-Kyoto |
| COP15 | 2009 | Copenhagen | Failed to reach binding agreement; Copenhagen Accord |
| COP17 | 2011 | Durban | Agreed to negotiate a new universal agreement (led to Paris) |
| COP21 | 2015 | Paris | Paris Agreement adopted |
| COP22 | 2016 | Marrakech | Paris Agreement implementation work began |
| COP24 | 2018 | Katowice | Paris Rulebook (how NDCs are measured/reported) |
| COP26 | 2021 | Glasgow | India's Net Zero 2070 announcement; coal phase-down language; Loss and Damage discussions |
| COP27 | 2022 | Sharm el-Sheikh | Loss and Damage Fund established — landmark victory for developing nations |
| COP28 | 2023 | Dubai | First Global Stocktake completed; "transition away" from fossil fuels; COP28 hosted by UAE |
| COP29 | 2024 | Baku, Azerbaijan | New climate finance goal (NCQG) — $300 billion/year by 2035 for developing nations |
IPCC — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- Established: 1988 by WMO + UNEP
- Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
- Function: Reviews and synthesises peer-reviewed climate science → informs policymakers
- Does NOT: Conduct original research or recommend specific policies
- Assessment Reports (ARs): Published every 5–7 years by three Working Groups:
- WG I: Physical Science Basis
- WG II: Impacts, Adaptation, Vulnerability
- WG III: Mitigation
AR6 (2021–2023) — Key Findings:
- Human influence in warming is "unequivocal"
- 1.5°C will be crossed in early 2030s
- Extreme events (floods, droughts, heat waves) becoming more frequent and intense
- 3.3–3.6 billion people live in contexts "highly vulnerable" to climate change
- Limiting warming to 1.5°C requires net zero CO₂ by ~2050 globally
Nobel Peace Prize 2007: IPCC + Al Gore — "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change."
SDGs — Sustainable Development Goals
- Adopted: UN General Assembly, September 25, 2015 (New York)
- Period: 2016–2030
- Count: 17 Goals, 169 Targets, 232 Indicators
- Replaced: MDGs (Millennium Development Goals, 2000–2015)
- Theme: "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda"
- Principle: "Leave No One Behind"
All 17 SDGs
| # | Goal | Key Focus |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | No Poverty | End poverty in all forms |
| 2 | Zero Hunger | Food security, nutrition, sustainable agriculture |
| 3 | Good Health and Well-Being | Universal health coverage |
| 4 | Quality Education | Inclusive, equitable education |
| 5 | Gender Equality | Empower all women and girls |
| 6 | Clean Water and Sanitation | Safe water and sanitation for all |
| 7 | Affordable and Clean Energy | Access to sustainable energy |
| 8 | Decent Work and Economic Growth | Full employment, economic growth |
| 9 | Industry, Innovation, Infrastructure | Resilient infrastructure, industrialisation |
| 10 | Reduced Inequalities | Reduce inequality within and among countries |
| 11 | Sustainable Cities and Communities | Inclusive, safe, resilient cities |
| 12 | Responsible Consumption and Production | Sustainable consumption patterns |
| 13 | Climate Action | Combat climate change and its impacts |
| 14 | Life Below Water | Conserve oceans, seas, marine resources |
| 15 | Life on Land | Protect ecosystems, halt biodiversity loss |
| 16 | Peace, Justice, Strong Institutions | Inclusive societies, rule of law |
| 17 | Partnerships for the Goals | Global partnership for implementation |
India's SDG India Index 2023–24:
- Composite Score: 71/100 (up from 57 in 2018–19)
- Best states: Kerala (79), Tamil Nadu (78), Himachal Pradesh (74)
- India leads in SDG 7 (Clean Energy), SDG 9 (Infrastructure)
- Needs improvement: SDG 2 (Hunger), SDG 5 (Gender Equality)
Other Key International Environmental Conventions
Montreal Protocol (1987)
- Purpose: Phase out ozone-depleting substances (ODS) — especially CFCs
- Achievement: Most successful global environmental treaty; ozone layer recovering
- Kigali Amendment (2016): Extended to include HFCs (potent greenhouse gases) — will prevent 0.5°C of warming by 2100
- India's commitment: Phase out HCFCs by 2030
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- Adopted: Rio Earth Summit, 1992
- Three goals: Conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use; fair sharing of benefits
- Nagoya Protocol (2010): Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) — genetic resources shared fairly
- Kunming-Montreal Framework (COP15, 2022): "30×30" — protect 30% of land and oceans by 2030
CITES (1963/1975)
- Full name: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
- Also called: Washington Convention
- Purpose: Regulate/ban international trade in endangered species
- Appendices: I (no commercial trade), II (regulated), III (national protection)
- India & CITES: Tiger, elephants, rhinos, sea turtles — Appendix I protection
Ramsar Convention (1971)
- Purpose: Protect wetlands of international importance
- India: 80 Ramsar sites (most in world as of 2024)
- Tamil Nadu: 7 sites — Vedanthangal, Karikili, Pallikaranai, Pichavaram, Point Calimere, Kanjirankulam, Suchindram Theroor
Basel Convention (1989)
- Purpose: Control transboundary movement of hazardous wastes
- Key: Prevents developed countries from dumping toxic waste in developing nations
Stockholm Convention (2001)
- Purpose: Eliminate or restrict Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) — DDT, PCBs, dioxins
- "Dirty Dozen": 12 initial chemicals targeted
Minamata Convention (2013)
- Purpose: Protect human health and environment from mercury pollution
- Named after: Minamata disease (Japan, 1950s) — mercury poisoning from industrial discharge
- Key measure: Phase out mercury-added products; control mercury emissions
UNCCD (UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994)
- Purpose: Combat land degradation and desertification — especially in arid regions
- India's commitment: Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) — restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030
India's Renewable Energy Targets
| Target | Goal | Status (2024) |
|---|---|---|
| Solar capacity | 500 GW by 2030 | ~80 GW installed |
| Total renewable capacity | 500 GW by 2030 | ~200 GW installed |
| Non-fossil electricity | 50% of installed capacity by 2030 | ~43% |
| Renewable energy in energy mix | 40% by 2030 | On track |
| Electric vehicles | 30% of new vehicle sales by 2030 | ~6% currently |
| Green Hydrogen | 5 MMT/year by 2030 | National Green Hydrogen Mission (₹19,744 cr) |
Board Exam Tips — Climate Change
- UNFCCC = 1992 Rio Earth Summit; force 1994; Secretariat Bonn; CBDR principle
- Kyoto Protocol = 1997; force 2005; only Annex I countries had binding targets; India = no target
- Paris Agreement = COP21 December 12, 2015; force November 4, 2016; India ratified October 2, 2016
- Paris goal = well below 2°C; pursue 1.5°C
- India NDC = 45% emission intensity reduction by 2030; 50% non-fossil electricity; Net Zero 2070
- IPCC = WMO + UNEP; established 1988; AR6 (2021–23); Nobel Peace Prize 2007
- COP26 Glasgow = Net Zero 2070 India; coal "phase down"; 2021
- COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh = Loss and Damage Fund; 2022
- COP28 Dubai = first Global Stocktake; "transition away" from fossil fuels; 2023
- COP29 Baku = $300 billion/year climate finance goal; 2024
- SDGs = 17 goals, 169 targets; adopted September 25, 2015; replace MDGs; period 2016–2030
- ISA = India + France; founded COP21; HQ Gurugram; 120 members
- Montreal Protocol = 1987; CFCs phase out; Kigali Amendment (2016) covers HFCs
- Ramsar = 1971; India = 80 sites; TN = 7 sites
- CITES = Washington Convention; trade in endangered species
- India land restoration = 26 million hectares by 2030 (UNCCD)
Frequently Asked Questions
Paris Agreement (2015): Adopted at COP21 in Paris on December 12, 2015. Goal: Limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. India's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) commitments: (1) Reduce GDP emission intensity by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030; (2) Achieve about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030; (3) Create carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through forests and trees by 2030; (4) Net Zero emissions by 2070 (announced COP26, Glasgow, November 2021). India ratified the Paris Agreement on October 2, 2016 (Gandhi Jayanti).