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These are complete exercise solutions for Samacheer Kalvi Class 12 Political Science — Chapter: Executive. Read the textbook chapter thoroughly first, attempt every question on your own, and then use these solutions to verify your answers. For detailed-answer questions, practise writing structured responses that include constitutional articles, relevant case law, and clear analysis.
Key Concepts (Quick Recap)
- President (Article 52-78): Constitutional head of the Union; nominal executive who exercises powers on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
- Vice-President (Article 63-71): Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha; succeeds the President under Article 65.
- Prime Minister (Article 75): Real executive head; appointed by the President, must enjoy majority support in Lok Sabha.
- Council of Ministers (Article 74-75): Aids and advises the President; collectively responsible to Lok Sabha (Article 75(3)).
- Cabinet: Inner circle of senior ministers responsible for major policy decisions and coordination.
- Governor (Article 153-167): Constitutional head of a state; analogous to the President at the state level.
- Chief Minister: Real executive head of a state; leads the state Council of Ministers.
- Parliamentary Executive: Executive is responsible to the legislature; India follows this system (Westminster model).
- Presidential Executive: Executive is not responsible to the legislature; the US follows this system.
- Ordinance Power (Article 123): President can promulgate ordinances when Parliament is not in session; must be approved within six weeks of reassembly.
- Article 74: Council of Ministers aids and advises the President; the question of whether such advice is binding was settled in the 44th Amendment (1978).
- Article 75: PM is appointed by the President; other ministers on PM's advice; collective responsibility to Lok Sabha.
- Article 356: President's Rule — imposition of Central rule in a state when constitutional machinery fails.
- S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): Landmark Supreme Court case that restricted misuse of Article 356; floor test is the ultimate test of majority.
- Distinction — Nominal vs Real Executive: President/Governor = nominal; PM/CM + Council = real.
- Emergency Provisions (Article 352-360): National Emergency (352), President's Rule (356), Financial Emergency (360).
- Impeachment of President (Article 61): Process for removing the President for violation of the Constitution.
I. Choose the Best Answer (MCQs)
Q1. Who is the real executive in India?
Answer
(a) President (b) Prime Minister and Council of Ministers ✓ (c) Chief Justice of India (d) Parliament
Answer(b) — The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers exercise real executive power. The President is the constitutional (nominal) head who acts on ministerial advice under Article 74.
Q2. Under which Article does the President promulgate ordinances?
Answer
(a) Article 74 (b) Article 75 (c) Article 123 ✓ (d) Article 356
Answer(c) — Article 123 empowers the President to promulgate ordinances during the recess of Parliament. These have the force of law but must be approved by Parliament within six weeks of reassembly.
Q3. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to:
Answer
(a) Rajya Sabha (b) President (c) Lok Sabha ✓ (d) Parliament
Answer(c) — Article 75(3) states that the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. If a no-confidence motion passes, the entire Council must resign.
Q4. Who appoints the Prime Minister?
Answer
(a) People of India (b) Lok Sabha (c) President ✓ (d) Chief Election Commissioner
Answer(c) — The President appoints the Prime Minister under Article 75. Convention dictates the President invites the leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha.
Q5. Article 74 was amended by the 44th Amendment to make ministerial advice:
Answer
(a) Non-binding on the President (b) Binding on the President ✓ (c) Subject to judicial review only (d) Advisory in nature
Answer(b) — The 44th Constitutional Amendment (1978) made it explicit that the President is bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers. Previously, Article 74 used the phrase "shall act in accordance with such advice," and the 44th Amendment removed any ambiguity.
Q6. The Governor of a state is appointed by:
Answer
(a) Chief Minister (b) State Legislature (c) President ✓ (d) Prime Minister
Answer(c) — Under Article 155, the Governor is appointed by the President and holds office during the pleasure of the President (Article 156).
Q7. The S.R. Bommai case (1994) is significant because it:
Answer
(a) Expanded the President's ordinance power (b) Restricted misuse of Article 356 ✓ (c) Made the Vice-President more powerful (d) Abolished the Governor's role
Answer(b) — In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the President's satisfaction under Article 356 is subject to judicial review, the floor test is the ultimate test of majority, and the state assembly cannot be dissolved before the proclamation is approved by Parliament.
Q8. The maximum gap between two sessions of Parliament is:
Answer
(a) Three months (b) Six months ✓ (c) One year (d) Four months
Answer(b) — Article 85 requires that there shall not be a gap of more than six months between two sessions of Parliament. This is why ordinance-making power (Article 123) is needed when Parliament is not in session.
Q9. The Vice-President of India is elected by:
Answer
(a) Direct election by the people (b) Members of Lok Sabha only (c) Members of both Houses of Parliament ✓ (d) State Legislatures
Answer(c) — Under Article 66, the Vice-President is elected by members of both Houses of Parliament sitting together, through proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.
Q10. A person to contest for the office of President must have completed:
Answer
(a) 25 years (b) 30 years (c) 35 years ✓ (d) 40 years
Answer(c) — Article 58 specifies that a candidate for President must be a citizen of India, must have completed 35 years of age, and must be qualified for election as a member of Lok Sabha.
II. Fill in the Blanks
1. The President of India is elected by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
2. The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister.
3. The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
4. Article 356 deals with the imposition of President's Rule in a state.
5. The President can promulgate ordinances under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session.
6. The real executive power of the Union is exercised by the Council of Ministers.
7. A person must have completed 35 years of age to be eligible for election as President of India.
8. The Governor holds office for a term of five years from the date of entering office, but holds office during the pleasure of the President.
III. True or False
1. The President of India is directly elected by the people of India. → False. The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (and Delhi and Puducherry Assemblies after the 70th Amendment).
2. The Prime Minister is the real executive head of the Union government. → True. The PM leads the Council of Ministers, determines policy, advises the President on appointments, and is responsible for coordinating the work of all ministries.
3. The Governor of a state is elected by the people of that state. → False. The Governor is appointed by the President (Article 155), not elected. This is a centrally appointed post to ensure Centre-State coordination.
4. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Rajya Sabha. → False. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha under Article 75(3), not to Rajya Sabha.
5. The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister. → True. The President exercises this power on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, headed by the PM. However, this power is subject to certain checks — for instance, the President may not dissolve a newly elected Lok Sabha before it meets.
6. The Vice-President can act as President for a maximum period of six months. → True. Under Article 65, when the office of President falls vacant by resignation, death, or removal, the Vice-President discharges the functions of President for a maximum period of six months, within which a new President must be elected.
7. An ordinance promulgated by the President has the same force as an Act of Parliament. → True. Under Article 123, an ordinance has the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament. However, it must be laid before both Houses when they reassemble and ceases to operate six weeks after reassembly unless approved earlier.
8. The Cabinet and the Council of Ministers are the same body. → False. The Council of Ministers includes all ministers (Cabinet rank, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers). The Cabinet is a smaller, powerful inner body consisting only of senior ministers holding Cabinet rank who make major policy decisions.
IV. Match the Following
| Column A | Column B |
|---|
| 1. President | (c) Constitutional head of the Union |
| 2. Prime Minister | (e) Real executive head of the Union |
| 3. Governor | (a) Constitutional head of the State |
| 4. Vice-President | (d) Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha |
| 5. Article 356 | (b) President's Rule in a State |
Key:
| 1 → c | 2 → e | 3 → a | 4 → d | 5 → b |
|---|
V. Answer Briefly
Q1. Who elects the President of India?
Answer
The President of India is elected by an electoral college under Article 54. The electoral college consists of: (a) elected members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha), and (b) elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States and Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry (after the 70th Amendment). Nominated members do not participate. The election is by proportional representation through a single transferable vote (Article 55). The value of votes of MLAs and MPs is calculated by a prescribed formula to ensure uniformity across states.
Q2. What is the difference between the nominal executive and the real executive?
Answer
The nominal executive (President at the Union level, Governor at the State level) holds formal constitutional authority but does not exercise real power independently. The President acts on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 74). The real executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers at the Union level; Chief Minister and Council of Ministers at the State level) actually formulates policy, implements laws, and runs the day-to-day administration. In effect, the nominal executive is the constitutional head, while the real executive is the political head accountable to the legislature.
Q3. State the qualifications required for the office of the President.
Answer
Under Article 58, a person seeking election as President must: (1) be a citizen of India, (2) have completed 35 years of age, (3) be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, and (4) must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any State government. The sitting President is eligible for re-election. The President is entitled to rent-free official residence (Rashtrapati Bhavan) and emoluments as determined by Parliament.
Q4. Mention any four powers of the President.
Answer
The President's powers under the Constitution include: (1) Executive powers (Article 53): All executive action is taken in the President's name; appointments of PM, Council of Ministers, Attorney General, Governors, etc. (2) Legislative powers (Article 79-88): Summons, prorogues, and addresses Parliament; nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha; can promulgate ordinances (Article 123). (3) Financial powers: Money Bills require President's recommendation; Annual Budget is presented on President's behalf; Contingency Fund is at President's disposal. (4) Emergency powers (Articles 352, 356, 360): National Emergency, President's Rule, and Financial Emergency. (5) Judicial powers (Article 72): Pardoning power — pardon, reprieve, respite, remission, and commute sentences in Union cases.
Q5. What are the functions of the Vice-President of India?
Answer
The Vice-President of India has two primary roles: (1) Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Article 64): Presides over Rajya Sabha proceedings, decides on points of order, and casts a casting vote in case of a tie (but no ordinary vote). (2) Acting President: Under Article 65, the Vice-President discharges the functions of the President when the office is vacant due to death, resignation, removal, or absence, for a maximum period of six months, within which a new President must be elected. The Vice-President is elected by members of both Houses of Parliament through proportional representation by a single transferable vote (Article 66).
Q6. How is the Prime Minister appointed?
Answer
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President under Article 75. Convention dictates that the President invites the leader of the majority party (or coalition) in the Lok Sabha to form the government. When no single party has a clear majority (a hung Lok Sabha), the President exercises discretion in choosing the PM. The PM must be a member of either House of Parliament; if not, they must become a member within six months. The PM advises the President on the appointment of other ministers and presides over Cabinet meetings.
Q7. Write a brief note on the Governor of a state.
Answer
The Governor is the constitutional head of a state under Article 153. Appointed by the President (Article 155), the Governor holds office for five years but serves at the pleasure of the President (Article 156). The Governor has executive, legislative, financial, and judicial powers analogous to the President at the Union level: appointing the Chief Minister and Council of Ministers, summoning and proroguing the state legislature, giving assent to Bills, reserving Bills for President's consideration, and recommending President's Rule (Article 356). However, unlike the President, the Governor has some discretionary powers, particularly in reserving Bills for the President's consideration and in recommending President's Rule.
Q8. What is collective responsibility?
Answer
Collective responsibility is a fundamental principle of the parliamentary system enshrined in Article 75(3). It means that the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. If a no-confidence motion is passed against any one minister or the Council as a whole, the entire Council must resign. This principle ensures: (1) Unity and solidarity within the government — ministers must publicly support Cabinet decisions even if they privately disagree (or resign). (2) Accountability to the legislature — the government remains in power only as long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. (3) No minister can publicly dissent from a Cabinet decision without resigning.
VI. Answer in Detail
Q1. Discuss the powers and position of the President of India. Is the President merely a rubber stamp?
Answer
The President of India occupies a unique position under the Constitution. Under Article 52, there shall be a President of India, and Article 53 vests the executive power of the Union in the President. However, the exercise of this power is regulated by the constitutional framework. Powers of the President: 1. Executive Powers (Articles 53, 74, 75): All executive action is taken in the President's name. The President appoints the Prime Minister, other ministers on PM's advice, the Attorney General, Governors, judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, members of the Union Public Service Commission, the Election Commission, and the Comptroller and Auditor General. 2. Legislative Powers (Articles 79-88, 123): The President summons, prorogues, and addresses Parliament; dissolves the Lok Sabha on PM's advice; nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha (for expertise in literature, science, art, and social service) and 2 Anglo-Indian members to Lok Sabha (before the 104th Amendment removed this); gives assent to Bills; and can promulgate ordinances under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session. 3. Financial Powers (Articles 112-117): The Annual Budget (Union Budget) is presented in the name of the President. No Money Bill can be introduced without the President's recommendation. The Contingency Fund of India is at the President's disposal for unforeseen expenditure. 4. Judicial Powers (Article 72): The President can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, remissions of punishment, or commute sentences in all cases where the punishment is for an offence under Union law or a court-martial sentence. 5. Emergency Powers (Articles 352, 356, 360): National Emergency (war or armed rebellion), President's Rule (failure of constitutional machinery in a state), and Financial Emergency (threat to financial stability). 6. Diplomatic Powers: The President represents India in international affairs, appoints ambassadors, and receives foreign diplomats. Is the President merely a rubber stamp? While the 44th Amendment (1978) made ministerial advice binding on the President, the President is not entirely a rubber stamp. In situations of a hung Parliament, the President exercises discretionary judgment in appointing the Prime Minister. The President can also send back Bills for reconsideration (a limited suspensive veto), though Parliament can override this by passing the Bill again. The President can impose President's Rule under Article 356, though this is now subject to judicial review (S.R. Bommai case, 1994). Thus, the President's role is largely ceremonial but not entirely powerless — particularly in extraordinary constitutional situations.
Q2. Explain the role of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers in India's parliamentary system.
Answer
The Prime Minister is the linchpin of India's parliamentary executive. Under Article 75, the PM is appointed by the President and holds office during the pleasure of the President — which in practice means as long as the PM enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. Role of the Prime Minister: 1. Leader of the Council of Ministers: The PM presides over Cabinet meetings, sets the agenda, and is the chief policy-maker. All ministers work under the PM's leadership. 2. Advisor to the President: Under Article 78, the PM communicates all decisions of the Council of Ministers to the President and furnishes information as the President may call for. The President can ask the Council to reconsider a decision, but must act on reconsidered advice. 3. Appointment Power: The PM advises the President on the appointment of ministers, the Attorney General, the CAG, members of the Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog), and other key functionaries. 4. Leader of the House: The PM (or a minister nominated by the PM) is the Leader of the House in whichever House they belong to, guiding government business in Parliament. 5. Crisis Manager: During national emergencies, the PM is the chief coordinator of all governmental activity. Council of Ministers: The Council of Ministers has three tiers: - Cabinet Ministers: Senior ministers who head important ministries (Home, Finance, Defence, External Affairs). They constitute the Cabinet — the inner body that makes all major policy decisions. - Ministers of State: Junior ministers who may have independent charge of a ministry or assist a Cabinet minister. - Deputy Ministers: Assist Ministers of State or Cabinet ministers; do not hold independent charge. Key Constitutional Provisions: - Article 74(1): There shall be a Council of Ministers with the PM at the head to aid and advise the President, who shall act in accordance with such advice. - Article 75(1): Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the PM. - Article 75(2): Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President. - Article 75(3): The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. - Article 75(5): A minister who is not a member of either House for six consecutive months ceases to be a minister. - 91st Amendment (2003): Total number of ministers, including the PM, shall not exceed 15% of the Lok Sabha strength.
Q3. Compare and contrast the parliamentary and presidential systems of executive.
Answer
The parliamentary and presidential systems represent two fundamentally different models of executive government. | Feature | Parliamentary System (India) | Presidential System (USA) | |---|---|---| | Head of State | President (nominal/ceremonial) | President (real executive) | | Head of Government | Prime Minister (real executive) | Same as Head of State | | Election | PM elected indirectly by Lok Sabha majority | President elected directly (via Electoral College) | | Relationship with Legislature | Executive is part of legislature; PM and ministers are members of Parliament | Strict separation; President and Cabinet are not members of Congress | | Collective Responsibility | Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha | No collective responsibility; President and Secretaries are not responsible to Congress | | Tenure | PM serves as long as majority support continues; can be removed by no-confidence motion | Fixed tenure of 4 years; cannot be removed by Congress (except impeachment for "high crimes") | | Dissolution of Legislature | PM can advise President to dissolve Lok Sabha; fresh elections possible | President cannot dissolve Congress; fixed terms | | Minister Selection | Ministers must be (or become within 6 months) members of Parliament | Cabinet Secretaries need not be members of Congress; chosen for expertise | | Policy-making | Cabinet (inner council) decides major policy; PM is first among equals | President decides policy; Secretaries implement | | Accountability | Daily accountability through Question Hour, debates, no-confidence motions | Periodic accountability through elections; impeachment is extreme measure | Why India chose the Parliamentary System: The Constituent Assembly chose the parliamentary system because: (1) India's colonial experience with the Westminster model provided familiarity; (2) the parliamentary system ensures daily accountability of the executive to the legislature; (3) a fixed-term presidential system could lead to a powerful executive unaccountable to the legislature, which was considered dangerous in a newly democratic nation; (4) the parliamentary system allows for the representation of diverse interests through coalition governments; (5) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar argued that the parliamentary system offers more responsible governance, while the presidential system offers more stability — and India prioritized responsibility.
Q4. Discuss the role, powers, and position of the Governor in a state.
Answer
The Governor is the constitutional head of a state under Article 153. The Governor's position is analogous to that of the President at the Union level, but with some important differences. Appointment and Tenure: - Appointed by the President (Article 155) — not elected, making it a centrally nominated post. - Holds office for a term of five years (Article 156), but serves at the pleasure of the President, meaning the President can remove the Governor at any time. - One person can be appointed Governor of two or more states (Article 153). Powers of the Governor: 1. Executive Powers: The Governor appoints the Chief Minister (the leader of the majority in the Legislative Assembly), other ministers on CM's advice, the Advocate General, the State Election Commissioner, and members of the State Public Service Commission. All executive action of the state is taken in the Governor's name. 2. Legislative Powers: The Governor summons, prorogues, and addresses the State Legislature; dissolves the Legislative Assembly on the CM's advice; nominates 1/6th of the members of the Legislative Council (from literature, science, art, co-operative movement, and social service); gives assent to Bills; may reserve Bills for the President's consideration; and can promulgate ordinances (Article 213) when the legislature is not in session. 3. Financial Powers: The Annual Budget is presented in the Governor's name. No Money Bill can be introduced without the Governor's recommendation. The Governor controls the Contingency Fund of the state. 4. Discretionary Powers (Crucial Difference from President): Unlike the President, the Governor has some powers exercisable at discretion: (a) reserving Bills for the President's consideration (especially on subjects that conflict with Central laws), (b) recommending President's Rule under Article 356, (c) exercising functions as administrator of an adjacent Union Territory, and (d) in situations where no party has a clear majority, the Governor has discretion in appointing the Chief Minister. 5. Judicial Powers: The Governor can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment, and can suspend, remit, or commute sentences in cases related to state law (Article 161). However, the Governor cannot pardon a sentence of a court-martial or a death sentence. Criticism of the Governor's Role: The Governor's role has been controversial. Critics argue that Governors often act as agents of the Central government, particularly in recommending President's Rule in states governed by opposition parties. The S.R. Bommai case (1994) established important safeguards: (1) the Governor's recommendation is subject to judicial review, (2) the floor test is the ultimate test of majority, and (3) the state assembly cannot be dissolved before Parliament approves the proclamation. The Sarkaria Commission (1988) and Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended that Governors should be non-partisan figures, and the CM should be consulted before appointing the Governor.
Q5. Explain the relationship between the President and the Prime Minister in India's governance.
Answer
The relationship between the President and the Prime Minister is central to understanding India's parliamentary system. The President is the constitutional (nominal) head, while the Prime Minister is the real executive head. Constitutional Framework: - Article 74(1): "There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice." The 44th Amendment (1978) made this advice binding. - Article 75(1): The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. In normal times, the President must invite the leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha. In a hung Parliament, the President exercises discretion. - Article 78: The PM communicates all decisions of the Council of Ministers to the President and provides information as the President may call for. Nature of the Relationship: 1. PM advises the President on all major appointments: Ministers, Attorney General, CAG, Election Commissioners, Governors, judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, and members of the Finance Commission and UPSC. The President must act on this advice. 2. PM advises the President on dissolution of Lok Sabha: After losing majority support, the PM may advise dissolution, triggering fresh elections. The President can explore alternatives before accepting, but cannot refuse if the PM has majority support. 3. PM as the channel of communication: Under Article 78, all decisions of the Council of Ministers are communicated to the President through the PM. The President can also ask for information about administrative and legislative matters. 4. President's limited powers of reconsideration: The President can ask the Council of Ministers to reconsider a decision (a limited suspensive veto on Bills), but if the Council reiterates the decision, the President must act on it. 5. Discretionary situations: The President may exercise limited discretion in: (a) appointing the PM when no party has a clear majority, (b) dismissing the PM if the PM refuses to resign after losing a no-confidence motion, and (c) using the pocket veto — keeping a Bill pending without giving assent (though this has rarely been used). Practical Dynamics: In practice, the PM-President relationship works smoothly when the same party controls both the office of the PM and the President's election. However, tensions can arise when: (a) the President is from a different political tradition, (b) a minority government faces a confidence vote, or (c) the President insists on constitutional propriety in recommending President's Rule. The relationship is fundamentally defined by the principle that the President acts on ministerial advice, but the President's role as guardian of the Constitution provides important checks in extraordinary situations.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
1. Confusing nominal and real executive: Many students write that "the President is the head of the government" without qualifying that he is the constitutional/nominal head, not the real executive. Always specify "nominal" or "constitutional" when referring to the President's formal position.
2. Equating Cabinet with Council of Ministers: The Cabinet is only the inner circle of senior ministers. The Council of Ministers includes all ministers — Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers. These are distinct bodies with different roles.
3. Stating the President is directly elected: The President is elected by an electoral college of elected MPs and MLAs through proportional representation by a single transferable vote. This is an indirect election, not a direct one.
4. Forgetting Article numbers: In exams, citing the relevant Article earns extra marks. Remember: President's election (Articles 52-62), Council of Ministers (Articles 74-75), Governor (Articles 153-167), Ordinance power (Article 123), President's Rule (Article 356).
5. Missing the distinction between Governor's discretionary and non-discretionary powers: The Governor's discretionary powers (reserving Bills for the President, recommending President's Rule, appointing CM when no clear majority) are a key difference from the President, who has almost no discretionary powers in normal times.
6. Omitting S.R. Bommai case: Whenever you write about Article 356 or President's Rule, always mention the S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) judgment. It is the most important judicial safeguard against the misuse of President's Rule and a frequent exam question.
Exam Checklist
- [ ] Can you explain the difference between nominal and real executive with examples?
- [ ] Do you know the Articles related to the President (52-62), Council of Ministers (74-75), and Governor (153-167)?
- [ ] Can you list at least five powers of the President — executive, legislative, financial, judicial, and emergency?
- [ ] Can you explain the 44th Amendment's effect on Article 74 (binding nature of ministerial advice)?
- [ ] Do you understand the three tiers of the Council of Ministers (Cabinet, Ministers of State, Deputy Ministers)?
- [ ] Can you compare the parliamentary system with the presidential system in at least five points?
- [ ] Can you explain the Governor's discretionary powers and how they differ from the President's powers?
- [ ] Can you discuss the significance of the S.R. Bommai case (1994) in restricting the misuse of Article 356?
