CBSE Class 12 Psychology NCERT Exercise Solutions

Intelligence is the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment (Wechsler). It is the ability to adapt to novel situations, learn from experience, and think abstractly.

Theories: 1. Triarchic Theory (Sternberg): Three types of intelligence:

• Componential (Analytical): ability to solve academic/test problems.
• Experiential (Creative): ability to deal with novel situations; creativity.
• Contextual (Practical): ability to adapt to real-world environment ("street smart").

2. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner): Intelligence is not a single ability — there are 8 relatively independent intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist. Each person has a unique profile.

General intelligence (g-factor) involves cognitive abilities — reasoning, problem-solving, verbal and numerical skills. It is measured by standard IQ tests.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to:

• Perceive and express emotions accurately.
• Use emotions to facilitate thinking.
• Understand emotional knowledge.
• Regulate emotions to promote growth.

EI predicts success in relationships, leadership, and mental health better than IQ alone. High IQ without EI can lead to social failure.

The Big Five (OCEAN) model identifies five broad personality dimensions:

These five dimensions explain most variation in personality across cultures.

Freud believed personality develops through the interplay of three structural components:

• Id: Primitive, operates on pleasure principle — seeks immediate gratification.
• Ego: Reality-based, mediates between id and superego — delayed gratification.
• Superego: Moral conscience — internalised parental/societal rules.

Personality also develops through five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic (Oedipus/Electra), latency, genital. Fixation at a stage causes personality problems.

Defence mechanisms protect the ego from anxiety:

• Repression: pushing threatening thoughts into the unconscious.
• Projection: attributing own unacceptable feelings to others.
• Rationalisation: giving logical reasons for irrational behaviour.
• Sublimation: channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Hans Selye (1956) identified GAS as the body's predictable response to stress in three stages:

1. Alarm Reaction: "Fight or flight" response. Adrenaline released. Heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing increase. Immune system briefly suppressed.

2. Resistance: Body attempts to adapt to the ongoing stressor. Cortisol levels remain high. Appears normal but resources are being drained.

3. Exhaustion: Resources are depleted. Immune system breaks down. Illness, burnout, or collapse may occur.

Example: A student facing continuous exam pressure: alarm (pre-exam panic), resistance (sustained study), exhaustion (falling ill after exams).

Effective coping strategies include:

• Relaxation techniques: Deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, yoga.
• Cognitive reappraisal: Viewing stress as a challenge, not a threat ("positive reframing").
• Exercise: Releases endorphins; reduces cortisol levels.
• Social support: Talking to friends, family, or therapists.
• Time management: Breaking tasks into manageable steps; avoiding procrastination.
• Problem-solving: Directly addressing the source of stress.
• Seeking professional help: Counselling or therapy when stress is chronic.

Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder with two categories of symptoms:

Positive symptoms (additions to normal behaviour):

• Hallucinations: Perceptions without stimulus (usually auditory).
• Delusions: Fixed false beliefs (e.g. persecution, grandeur).
• Disorganised speech (loosening of associations).
• Disorganised or catatonic behaviour.

Negative symptoms (diminished normal functioning):

• Flat affect (restricted emotional expression).
• Alogia (poverty of speech).
• Avolition (inability to initiate goal-directed activity).
• Anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure).

Systematic desensitisation (Wolpe) is a behaviour therapy technique used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders. It is based on the principle of counter-conditioning — replacing an anxiety response with a relaxation response.

Steps: 1. Client is trained in deep muscle relaxation. 2. An anxiety hierarchy is constructed (situations ranked from least to most anxiety-provoking). 3. Client is exposed to each scene in imagination while maintaining relaxation (starting from lowest anxiety level). 4. Gradually progress to higher levels until the feared object no longer triggers anxiety.

Used for: Specific phobias (snakes, heights, spiders), social phobia, PTSD.

Carl Rogers believed every person has an innate drive towards self-actualisation — achieving one's full potential. Problems arise when there is a gap between the actual self and the ideal self.

Therapist provides:

• Unconditional positive regard: Accepting the client without conditions or judgement.
• Empathetic understanding: Genuinely understanding the client's feelings from their perspective.
• Genuineness (congruence): Therapist is authentic, not playing a role.

The client, feeling accepted and understood, develops insight and moves towards self-actualisation. The therapist is non-directive — the client leads the session.

Attitudes have three components (ABC model):

• A — Affective component: Emotional feelings (like/dislike) towards the attitude object. E.g. "I feel nervous around snakes."
• B — Behavioural component: Tendency to act in a certain way. E.g. "I would avoid a place with snakes."
• C — Cognitive component: Beliefs and thoughts about the object. E.g. "Snakes are dangerous."

All three components may or may not be consistent with each other (attitude-behaviour gap).

Stanley Milgram (1963) studied why ordinary people obey authority even when ordered to harm others.

Procedure: Participants were told to deliver electric shocks (up to 450V) to a "learner" (confederate) for wrong answers. Authority figure (in lab coat) instructed them to continue.

Finding: 65% of participants continued to the maximum 450V shock level. Participants showed distress but obeyed because of authority.

Conclusion: Situational factors (authority, gradual escalation) can make ordinary people commit harmful acts. This explains historical atrocities like the Holocaust.

Factors that reduced obedience:

• When the experimenter was not present.
• When the victim was seen (not just heard).
• When there were dissenting peers.

Groupthink (Janis) occurs when the desire for harmony and consensus in a highly cohesive group overrides critical thinking. Members do not raise objections to preserve group unity.

Symptoms: Illusion of invulnerability, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters, shared stereotyped view of outgroup.

Prevention:

• Appoint a "devil's advocate" to challenge decisions.
• Invite outside experts to give independent views.
• Break into subgroups and compare conclusions.
• Leader should withhold opinions initially to avoid influencing the group.

Positive psychology was formally proposed by Martin Seligman (2000) as the scientific study of human strengths, virtues, and well-being — not just the absence of illness.

Key concepts:

• PERMA model: Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Achievement.
• Resilience: Bouncing back from adversity.
• Flow: Complete absorption in an intrinsically motivating activity (Csikszentmihalyi).
• Gratitude, optimism, hope: Reliably associated with well-being.

Application: School well-being programmes, workplace positive culture, therapy for depression.